| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.2.1 Proto-Erythrean to Proto-Cushitic | ɡ → k / #{d,w}V_
|
| 6.2.1.1.1 Proto-Agaw to Awngi | z dz ɡ → ɡ {z,dz} ɡ(ʷ)
|
| 6.2.2.1.2 Proto-Boreafrasian to Egypto-Berber | ɡwVq → ʕ
|
| ɡ(w) → dʒ / #_Vd
|
| 6.2.2.1.5 Proto-Semitic to Classical Arabic | ɡ → ɡʲ → dʒ
|
| 6.2.2.1.11 Classical Arabic to Iraqi Arabic | ɡʲ → j / in southern regions
|
| 6.2.2.1.18 Proto-Semitic to Biblical Hebrew | p b t d k ɡ → b v θ ð x ɣ / non-intial singletons
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.1 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Japonic | ɡ → ∅ / iV_
|
| ɡ → k / else
|
| 8.2 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Korean | {tʰ,d} {k,ɡ} → r {h,∅} / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| ɡ → k / #_
|
| 8.3 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Mongolic | ɡ → h / ! {C,V}_h
|
| 8.5 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Turkic | d ɡ → t k (may have been part of a more sweeping merger; Firespeaker calls it “lenis-fortis”)
|
| 8.5.1 Proto-Turkic to Proto-Kypchak | ɡm rɡ → mɡ ɡr (this second one is listed as → rɡ but it might be a typo)
|
| {d,ɡ} → j / ø_
|
| ɡ → w / V_
|
| 8.5.2 Proto-Turkic to Sakha | o oɡ ø øɡ iɡ → wo ɥø oː øː iː
|
| a{ɡ̌(ɯ),b} {o{ɡ̌,b},aɡ̌u} u{ɡ̌,b} → ɰa wo uː
|
| iɡ̌ → ɯː → iː (but original ɯː unaffected?)
|
| eɡ → {je,iː,ji}
|
| 9 Austroasiatic | 9.1.1 Proto-Vietic to Muong Khen | {kʰ,ɡʱ} → x (Presyllables don’t seem to have affected this much)
|
| 9.1.2 Proto-Vietic to Middle Vietnamese | bʱ {tʰ,dʱ} {t*ʰ,d*ʱ} {kʰ,ɡʱ} → pʰ t tʰ kʰ (after *kʰ *ɡʱ, only first-register tones may occur)
|
| (h)ə{p,b} (h)ə{t,d} (h)ə{c,ɟ} (h)ə{k,ɡ} → β dʲ ɟ ɡ
|
| t*ʰ d ɡ → tʰ t k / _w
|
| {əkʰ,əɡɦj} → ɟ (I think Thompson implied this was just a bit of a kludge)
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.1.2.7.2 Proto-Kalamian to Karamiananen | ɡ → h / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.7.3 Proto-Kalamian to Kalamian Tagbanwa | b ɡ → β V / V_V
|
| 10.2.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Chamorro | ɡʷ → ɡ / _V[+round]
|
| 10.2.4.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Madurese | {p,t,k} b d ɡ → ʔ p t k / _#
|
| 10.2.6 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-North Sarawak | bː dː dzː ɡː → bʱ dʱ dzʱ ɡʱ (Whimemsz says these become “voiced stops with voiceless releases. . .treated as unit phonemes, not clusters)”
|
| 10.2.6.1 Proto-North Sarawak to Kiput | bʱ {dʱ,dzʱ} ɡʱ → f s k
|
| v ɡ ɟ → f k c / V_V
|
| 10.2.6.2.1 Proto-Kenyah to Òma Lóngh | bʱ dʱ dzʱ ɡʱ → p t c k
|
| b d dz ɡ → p t c k / N_
|
| 10.3 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Oceanic | {nts,ns,nz,nɡʲ} {ts,z,ɡʲ} → ɡʲ s
|
| {ŋk,ŋɡ} ɡ → ɡ k
|
| 10.3.2 Proto-Oceanic to Hiw | b d ɡ → p t k
|
| 10.3.3 Proto-Oceanic to Lemerig | b bʷ d ɡ → p kpʷ t k
|
| 10.3.4 Proto-Oceanic to Mwotlap | p pʷ bʷ k ɡ → β w kpʷ ɣ k
|
| 10.3.5.7 Proto-New Caledonia to Pwapwâ | bw mw → ɡw ŋw (→ ɡ ŋ / _V[+ rounded])
|
| 10.3.7 Proto-Oceanic to Shark Bay | b bʷ ɡ → p pʷ k
|
| 10.3.8 Proto-Oceanic to Tolomako | d ɡ → r k
|
| 10.3.11.1 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Anejom | b(ʷ) ɡ → p(ʷ) k
|
| 10.3.11.2.1 Proto-Erromango to Sye | b d ɡ → p t k / {#,C}_
|
| b d ɡ → m n ŋ / _#
|
| b d ɡ → mp nt ŋk
|
| 10.3.11.2.2 Proto-Erromango to Ura | b d ɡ → m n ŋ / _C
|
| b d ɡ → p t k / _#
|
| 10.3.11.3 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Proto-Tanna | ɡ q → k ∅
|
| 10.3.12 Proto-Oceanic to Vera’a | bʷ ɡ → kpʷ k
|
| 10.5 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Ongan | ɟ ɡ *N *R → {ɟ,j} {ɟ,ɡ} {l,j} {l,r}
|
| 10.5.1 Proto-Ongan to Jarawa | ɡ → j
|
| 10.5.2 Proto-Ongan to Onge | ɡd ɡl → dː lː
|
| 11 Northeast Caucasian | 11.3 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Khinalug | kː kʼ ɡ → k {kʼ,ɡ} {kʼ,kː}
|
| 11.4 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Lak | ɡ → kː
|
| qʼ qʼː ɡ → {qʼ,j} qʼ {qː,ɣ}
|
| 11.5.2 Proto-Lezgic to Archi | kː ɡ → x {kː,ɡ}
|
| 11.5.3 Proto-Lezgic to Lezghi | kː ɡ → ɣ kː
|
| 11.7.2 Proto-Tsezic to Tsez | kːʼ ɡ → k kʼ
|
| 12 Northwest Caucasian | 12.2 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Circassian | k kʼ ɡ → kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ
|
| ɡʲʷ xʲʷ ɣʲʷ(?) → ɡʷ xʷ ʁʷ
|
| 12.2.1.2 Adyghe to Bzhedug Adyghe | kʲ(ː) kʲʼ ɡʲ → tʃ(ː) tʃʼ dʑ
|
| 12.2.1.4 Adyghe to Temirgoy Adyghe | kʲ(ː) kʲʼ kʷː ɡʲ → tʃ tʃʼ kʷ dʑ
|
| 12.2.2 Proto-Circassian to Kabardian | dɮ dzʲ dzʷ dʑ ɡʲ → ʒ ʑ {v,w} ʒ dʒ
|
| 12.3 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Ubykh | k kʼ ɡ x ɣ → kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ ɕ ɣ~ʁ
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Gheg Albanian | ɡ́(ʱ) → d / %_C[+sibilant]
|
| ɡʷ(ʱ) → {ɡ,z}
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́(ʱ) → b d dh
|
| 17.1.2 Proto-Indo-European to Tosk Albanian | ɡ́(ʱ) → d / %_C[+sibilant]
|
| ɡʷ(ʱ) → {ɡ,z}
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́(ʱ) → b d dh
|
| 17.2.2 Common Anatolian to Luwian | ɡ → dʒ (sporadic)
|
| 17.2.3 Common Anatolian to Lycian | {ɡ́,ɡ} → j / _e(ː)
|
| {ɡ́,ɡ} → ∅ / _i(ː)
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_V
|
| ɡ → dʒ (sporadic)
|
| 17.2.5 Common Anatolian to Palaic | ɡʷ → hʷ / medially
|
| 17.3.1 Proto-Indo-European to Artsakh Armenian | ɡ́ → ts (?)
|
| b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
|
| 17.3.2 Proto-Indo-European to Erevan Armenian | ɡ́ → ts (?)
|
| b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
|
| ɡʷʱ → ɡʱ / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
|
| 17.3.3 Proto-Indo-European to Istanbul Armenian | ɡ́ → ts (?)
|
| b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → b j k / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
|
| 17.3.4 Proto-Indo-European to Kharpert Armenian | ɡ́ → ts (?)
|
| b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
|
| 17.3.5 Proto-Indo-European to Sebastia Armenian | ɡ́ → ts (?)
|
| b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ / ! _#
|
| 17.3.6 Proto-Indo-European to Southeast Armenian | ɡ́ → ts (?)
|
| b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
|
| 17.3.7 Proto-Indo-European to Southwest Armenian | ɡ́ → ts (?)
|
| b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
|
| 17.4.1 Proto-Indo-European to Avestan | bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ → b d z
|
| ḱ ɡ́ → s z
|
| k(ʷ) ɡ(ʷ)(ʱ) → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| k kʷ ɡ(ʷ)(ʱ) → x k ɡ / else
|
| 17.5 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic | — ɡʷ → b
|
| 17.5.1 Proto-Indo-European to Old Irish | ɡʷ → b / #_V ! _u(ː)
|
| ɡʷ → b / #_N
|
| ɡʷ → b / C_V
|
| ɡʷ → ɡ
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ m n l r s → f θ x xʷ v ð ɣ M N L R h / V(#)_{R,V} (“We don’t know the exact values of lenited /m n l r/. We can guess that lenited m became a nasalized labial continuant of some sort, but beyond that, we don’t know.”)
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ ∅ → b d ɡ ɡʷ mb nd ŋɡ n / n#_”V
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | p t k {b,m} d ɡ → b d ɡ v ð ɣ / _V
|
| mb nd ŋɡ → mː nː ŋː
|
| 17.6 Proto-Indo-European to Dacian | bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → b d ɡ́ ɡ ɡʷ
|
| ḱ ɡ́ → ts dz
|
| {kʷ,kw} {ɡʷ,ɡw} → tʃ dʒ (→ s~z z ?) / _E
|
| {kʷ,kw} {ɡʷ,ɡw} → k ɡ / else
|
| 17.7 Proto-Indo-European to Common Germanic | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → β ð ɣ
|
| b d ɡ → p t k
|
| 17.7.2.1 West Germanic to Anglo-Frisian | k ɡ → tʃ j(?)
|
| 17.7.2.1.1 Anglo-Frisian to Old English | k ɣ ɡ → tʃ ʝ dʒ / “in certain complex circumstances”
|
| 17.7.2.1.4 Midlands Middle English to Early Modern English | mb ŋɡ → m ŋ / _#
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| 17.7.2.1.9 Early Northern Middle English to Scots | oɡ → ʌu
|
| 17.7.2.1.10 Old English to Scots | ɔ{ɡ,j} → ʌu
|
| 17.7.2.1.11 Scots to Falkirk Scots | ɡ → ʝ / V_# ! _C “(most times)”
|
| 17.7.2.1.14 Anglo-Frisian to Old Frisian | k ɡ → tʃ j / _E
|
| ɡ → j / E_
|
| 17.7.2.1.15 North Frisian Lenition | p t k → b d ɡ → v r ɣ / Vː_{V,#}
|
| 17.7.2.4 High German Cosonant Shift and Umlaut | b d ɡ → p t k
|
| 17.7.2.5 West Germanic to Old Low German | ɡ → k / ŋ_#
|
| ɡ → ʝ / _E (singleton only)
|
| ɡ → ɣ / _V (singleton only)
|
| ɡ → x / _#
|
| 17.7.3.1 Proto-Norse to Old Norse | b {w,v} d ð ɡ → p f t θ k / _#
|
| {ɡ,ɣ} → ∅ / l_{ð,t}
|
| {ɡ,ɣ} → ∅ / r_{d,n,t}
|
| {t(ː),ɡː}k → kː
|
| ɡ → ∅ / #_n
|
| N(ː) k k(ː) N(ː)ɡ ɡ(ː) ɣ → ɲc(ː) c(ː) ɲɟ(ː) ɟ(ː) ʝ / _{i,j}
|
| N(ː) k k(ː) N(ː)ɡ ɡ(ː) ɣ → ɲc(ː) c(ː) ɲɟ(ː) ɟ(ː) ɟ / _{i,j}
|
| 17.7.3.1.1 Old Norse to Early Icelandic | ɡ ɟ → ɣ j / V_V
|
| ɡ → ɣ / V_#
|
| b d {ɡ,ɣ} → p t k / _S
|
| 17.7.3.1.2 Old Norse to Orkney Norn | b d ɡ → p t k / #_
|
| ɡ → k / _# (sporadic)
|
| ɡn ɡl → nj lj
|
| k ɡ → c ɟ / _{E,j}
|
| 17.7.3.1.3 Old Norse to Shetland Norn | ɡ(ː) → dʒ / _iV
|
| k ɡ → c ɟ / _E
|
| ɡl → lɡ
|
| 17.8.1 Proto-Indo-European to Aeolian Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.2 Proto-Indo-European to Attic Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| b d ɡ → v ð ɣ / V_V
|
| ɡ x → j ç / _{ɛ,i}
|
| 17.8.3 Proto-Indo-European to Boeotian Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.4 Proto-Indo-European to Coan Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.5 Proto-Indo-European to Cretan Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.6 Proto-Indo-European to Doric Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.7 Proto-Indo-European to Elian Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.8 Proto-Indo-European to Ionic Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.9 Proto-Indo-European to Laconian Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.10 Proto-Indo-European to Mycenaean Greek | bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.9 Proto-Indo-European to Hittite | ḱ ɡ́ ɡ́ʱ → k ɡ ɡʱ
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → p t k
|
| kʷ ɡʷ ɡʷʱ → ku ɡu ku
|
| 17.10 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian | k ɡ ɡʱ → c ɟ ɟʱ / _e,i,j
|
| 17.10.1.1 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Central Middle Indo-Aryan | {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.2 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Eastern Middle Indo-Aryan | {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| b {d,dʒ,ɡ} → v j / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.3 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Northwestern Middle Indo-Aryan | {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.4 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Western Middle Indo-Aryan | {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.5 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Vedic Sanskrit | {pʂ,cʂ,ɟʐʱ,ɡʐʱ} → kʂ
|
| 17.11 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Slavic | bʱ dʱ {ɡʱ,ɡ́ʱ} ɡʷʱ → b d ɡ ɡʷ
|
| Kʷ ḱ ɡ́ → K s z
|
| k ɡ x → tʃ ʒ ʃ / _{e(ː)(i),i(ː)}
|
| k ɡ x → ts dz s / _{æː,i}
|
| k ɡ x → ts dz s / “After some syllables with front vowels”
|
| kj ɡj xj → tʃ ʒ ʃ
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | k ɡ → kʲ ɡʲ / _ɛ where the vowel is from a yer or a borrowing
|
| kɨ ɡɨ → kʲi ɡʲi
|
| ɡ → ∅ / _d
|
| 17.12 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Italic | ḱ ǵ → k ɡ
|
| ǵʰ gʷʰ → ɡʰ xʷ
|
| bʰ dʰ gʰ → pʰ tʰ dʰ → ɸ θ x
|
| 17.12.1 Proto-Italic to Proto-Latino-Falsican | ɡʷ → w
|
| ɡʰ → f / #_
|
| ɡʰ → {d,h,ɡ}
|
| 17.12.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Latin | {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʷʱ} → f / #_
|
| ḱ ɡ́ → k ɡ
|
| ɡʱ → ɡ / ŋ_
|
| ɡ → ∅ / _h
|
| ɡʷ(ʱ) → ɡu / ŋ_
|
| ɡʷ → v
|
| ɡʷʱ → f / _r
|
| ɡʷʱ → v / V_V
|
| {k,ɡ} → ŋ / _n
|
| 17.12.1.1.2 Latin to Catalan | p b t d k ɡ → β {β,w} ∅ {j,w} ɣ {j,∅,ɡ} / V_rV
|
| {kl,ɡl} → ʎ / V_V (the latter is irregular)
|
| ɡn tj → ɲ ∅ / V_V
|
| lj rj kj ɡj → ʎ jr ts ʒ / V_V
|
| k ɡ → ∅ {∅,ʒ} / V_{i,e} (ɡ → ʒ is learned)
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_V%”V
|
| j ɡj ts z n → tʃ i w s ∅ / _#
|
| ɡ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e}
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / #_a
|
| ɡʷ → ɡ / C_{i,e}
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / C_a
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_dV
|
| 17.12.1.1.3 Latin to French | k ɡ → tj dj / _E
|
| {ɡn,nj} → ɲ
|
| k ɡ → t d / {n,r}_r
|
| {kl,ɡl,lj} → ʎ
|
| {k,ɡ} → ∅ / V_B
|
| {k,ɡ} → ∅ / B_a
|
| {k,ɡ} → j / _{a,C}
|
| — ɡ → ∅ / _j
|
| k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _a
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ
|
| 17.12.1.1.4 Vulgar Latin to Italian | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| ɡ → ∅ / a_V
|
| {dj,ɡj} lj {nj,ɡn} → dʒ ʎ ɲ
|
| 17.12.1.1.5 Latin to Portuguese | ɡ → ɡʲ → dʲ → dʒ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
|
| nɡi → ɲ
|
| {kl,ɡl} → ʎ
|
| ɡ → ∅ / #_l
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e,o}
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / #_
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / C_a
|
| ɡ → {∅,ʒ} / V_{i,e} (ɡ → ʒ is learned)
|
| ɡ → j / V_r
|
| ks ɡn tj → ʃ ɲ {z,s} / V_V (tj → s is learned)
|
| ɡj → {ʒ,j} / V_V (ɡj → j is learned)
|
| 17.12.1.1.6 Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal | b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / V_V
|
| k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_(VC…)”V
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / _B
|
| {d,ɡ} → ∅ / _j
|
| (s)k ɡ → (s)tʃ dʒ / #_a (in the north and northeast)
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → kw ɡw (in western dialects)
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ (else)
|
| b {d,dz,dʒ} z ʒ ɡ → p {t,ts,tʃ} s ʃ k / _(s)#
|
| ɡ → k / B_ (your guess is probably better than mine)
|
| ɡ → {k,j} / V_ (if /j/ resulted, it dropped after /i/; forms with k are “most persistent in the west” and more common overall)
|
| ɡ → j / _a (in the north and east; further → dʒ in the north)
|
| ɡ → ɡ / _{o,u/y}
|
| ɡ → j → dʒ / “[b]etween the last two vowels of a proparoxytone”, though it dropped early in some dialects
|
| {t,d}l {k,ɡ}l → lː ʎ
|
| p k tʃ b ɡ β j → b ɡ i {b,u,u→y→i} ∅ {u,u→y→i} i / _r
|
| βw tw → wː dw → ɡʷ ɡʷ → ɡ ɡ
|
| {d,k}w → ɡʷ → ɡ
|
| (kʷ → ɡʷ → ɡ ?)
|
| {l,r}w {n,ŋk,ŋɡ}w → lɡʷ ŋɡʷ → lɡ ŋɡ
|
| dVɡ (n)dVɡ → dʒ(?) ndʒ
|
| rdj rVɡ → rdz rdʒ
|
| rːVɡ rːj → rdʒ ir
|
| rtVɡ → {rdʒ,rts(→ rs)}
|
| tVɡ trj → dʒ ir
|
| rdɡ → r{ɡ,dʒ} / _a
|
| stɡ → s{ɡ,dʒ}
|
| kt ɡd → it id (in the north, northeast, and southwest)
|
| {tʃ,k}t ɡd → tʃ dʒ (else)
|
| ɡ → ∅ / _m
|
| ɡn{d,t} → ŋn{d,t} → ɲ{d,t} → {(i)nd,ɲd,ndʒ} or t(ʃ)
|
| ɡn → ŋn → ɲ
|
| 17.12.1.1.7 Vulgar Latin to Rhaeto-Romance | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _a (note the similarity with some varieties of Old Provençal)
|
| 17.12.1.1.8 Latin to Romanian | kʷ ɡʷ → p b / V_a
|
| ɡ → m / _n
|
| k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| kj ɡj → tʃ {j,∅} (ɡj → ∅ is rare)
|
| 17.12.1.1.9 Latin to Sardinian | kw ɡw → pː bː / #_ (“[o]nly Logudorese”)
|
| b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / “except in Nuorese”
|
| ɡn → nː
|
| 17.12.1.1.10 Vulgar Latin to Spanish | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ → ts dz / _{j,i,e,ɛ}
|
| {k,ɡ} → x → j / _{t,s,n,l}
|
| {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː
|
| ɡ → {∅,ɣ} / V_V
|
| d ɡ → ð ɣ / V_V
|
| — ndzVɡ → nɡ
|
| b ɡ → β ɣ / {l,ɾ}_
|
| 17.12.2 Proto-Italic to Proto-Sibellian | ḱ ɡ́ kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ p b
|
| {ɡ́ʰ,x} {ɸ,θ,ɡʷʰ} → h f
|
| 18 Je-Tupı́-Carib | 18.3.1 Proto-Tuparí to Makuráp | ɡʷ → β / _V[-nas]
|
| 18.3.2 Proto-Tuparí to Mekens | ɡ → k
|
| ɡʷ → k / _o
|
| ɡʷ ŋɡ → kʷ k / _V[-nas]
|
| ɡʷ → kʷ / #_V[+nas]
|
| 18.3.3 Proto-Tuparí to Tuparí | kʷ ɡ → ∅ k
|
| ɡʷ → ∅ / _o
|
| ɡʷ ŋɡ → β k / _V[-nas]
|
| 18.3.4 Proto-Tuparí to Wayoró | ɡʷ → ɡ / _o
|
| ŋɡ → k / ! _V[-nas]
|
| 18.4.9.1.4 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Suruí | ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
|
| 18.4.9.1.5 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Zoró | ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
|
| 19 Kartvelian | 19.2 Proto-Kartvellian to Svan | ɡ → {ɡ,dʒ}
|
| 21 Lakes Plain | 21.1.1 Proto-Far West to Awera | b d ɡ → β~w ɾ~∅ ɣ / V_V
|
| 22 Macro-Arawakan | 22.2 Proto-Arawá to Banawá-Jamamadi | kʰ ɡ → k w
|
| 22.4 Proto-Arawá to Jarawara | kʰ ɡ → k w
|
| 22.5 Proto-Arawá to Kulína-Dení | ɡ → w
|
| 23 Macro-Chibchan | 23.1.1.1.5 Proto-Chibchan to Motilón | ɡ → ∅
|
| 23.1.1.1.6 Proto-Chibchan to Tunebo | ɡ ɡʷ → ∅ b
|
| 26 Mande | 26.1 Proto-Mande to Bobo | tʼ {kʼ,ɡ} → t k
|
| kp ɡb → k ɡw
|
| 26.4 Proto-Mande to Guro | kp {kpʼ,ɡb} → p b
|
| 26.5 Proto-Mande to Kono-Vai | {ɡ,w,kp} kpʼ ɡb → k kp b
|
| 26.6 Proto-Mande to Southwest Mande | {tʼ,d} {kʼ,ɡ} → l k
|
| kp kpʼ ɡb → {k,B} kp B (it’s unclear what this 〈B〉 is)
|
| 26.7 Proto-Mande to Mandekan | {k,ɡ,kp} {kpʼ,ɡb} → s b
|
| 26.11 Proto-Mande to Sembla | tʼ {kʼ,ɡ,w} → {t,d} k
|
| ɡb → b
|
| 26.12 Proto-Mande to Soninka | tʼ {kʼ,ɡ} → {t,d} k
|
| kp ɡb → k b
|
| 26.13 Proto-Mande to Susu | kp ɡb → k b
|
| 29 Na-Dene | 29.1 Proto-Na-Dene to Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak | kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz s
|
| 29.1.1 Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak to Proto-Athabaskan | k kʼ kʷ kʷʼ ɡ ɡʷ → kʲ kʲʼ tʂ tʂʼ ɡʲ ɖʐ
|
| 29.1.1.1.22 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Jicarilla | xʲ xʔ j ɡʔ → ih iʔ i iʔ / _#
|
| 29.1.2 Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak to Eyak | kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz {s,ʃ}
|
| 30 Niger-Congo | 30.1.1.1 Proto-Bantu to Sebirwa | p t d c ɟ k ɡ → ɸ ɹ {d,l} tʰ ∅ h {∅,ɡ}
|
| 30.1.1.2 Proto-Bantu to Tswana | {p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n} → s tsʰ ts ɲ / _iV
|
| {tʃ,k} {ntʃ,nk,r} {ɲdʒ,nɡ} mp mb p b {d,l} m n → s tsʰ ts tʃʰ(w) tʃ(w) ʃ(w) dʒ(w) dʒ ŋw ɲ / _{ɪ,e}V
|
| {p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n,ɲ} → sw tsʰw tsw ɲw / _iV
|
| {tʃ,k} {ɲtʃ,nk} {ndʒ,nɡ} → s tsʰ ts / _{i,ɪ,e}
|
| mp nt ɲtʃ nk mp nd ɲdʒ nɡ → pʰ tʰ tɬʰ qʰ p t tɬ k
|
| p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
|
| 30.1.2 Pre-Proto-Bantu to Proto-Manenguba | ’p ’t ’d/d2 c {’ɟ} ’k ɡ → f l ɟ s ∅ {w,∅} {k,w} / in C1 position
|
| 30.3.1.1.3 Proto-Gbe to Proto-Fon | {t,k}j {d,ɡ}j → tʃ dʒ
|
| 30.3.1.1.4 Proto-Gbe to Proto-Gen | {t,k}j {d,ɡ}j → tʃ dʒ
|
| 30.3.1.1.6 Proto-Phla-Pherá to Alada | k ɡ → ʃ ʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.8 Proto-Vhe to Adángbe | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.9 Proto-Vhe to Avéno | k ɡ s → ts dz ʃ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.10 Proto-Vhe to Awalan | s {k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → ʃ tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.11 Proto-Vhe to Kpándo | {t,k} {d,ɡ} → ts dz / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.12 Proto-Vhe to Pecı́ | {k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.13 Proto-Vhe to TẸ́wun | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.14 Proto-Vhe to Wacı́ | {k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 31 Nyulnyulan | 31.1 Proto-Nyulnyulan to Bardi | aɡu → o
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.2 Sin Sukchu to Guānhuà | b d dz ɡ → {p,pʼ} {t,tʼ} {ts,tsʼ} {k,kʼ}
|
| 36.3.1.1 Proto-Naish to Laze | S{b,ɡ} Sk → v h / _V
|
| 36.3.1.2 Proto-Naish to Mosuo (Na) | S{b,ɡ} Sk → ∅ h
|
| 36.3.1.3 Proto-Naish to Naxi | Sb Sk Sɡ → b ? ɡ / _V
|
| 36.3.2.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to bTshan La | k sk kr ɡ Pɡ sɡ Nɡ (s)ɡr çK rK Kç → kʰ zɡw dr Nɡ pk sk mk (s)kr çk rɡj ɡçkr
|
| (ʔ)kj (s)ɡj Nkj → (k)tç (s)kj Ndʒ
|
| 36.3.2.1.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Chos Kia | kj Nkj ʔkj ɡj sɡj → kj. nj ɡ.tsʰ kj skj.
|
| kr (s)ɡr → n.br (s)kr
|
| 36.3.2.2.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Kham To | k (N)ɡ → k. (m)k
|
| Nkj ɡj sɡj → mj ts stʃj
|
| sɡr → skr
|
| 36.3.2.2.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to lCog Rtse | (P)ɡ sɡ çK Nɡ k sk rk (s)ɡj (ʔ)kj → (p)k sk çk mk kʰ zɡ Nɡ (s)kj (ʔ)kʰj
|
| Nkj (s)ɡr Kç kr skr ɡr → mɡj (s)kr ɡçkr kʰr zɡr Nɡr
|
| 36.3.2.2.4 Proto-rGyalrongic to Suo Mo | kr rk {rK,Pɡ} ɡ Pɡ sɡ → k.r rk. pk k sk
|
| ɡj → cç ? (might be → tsç?)
|
| ɡ → ∅ / #_r
|
| 36.3.2.2.6 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tsa Ku Nao | k {sɡ,çK} Nɡ rK → k. sk mɡ nk
|
| 36.3.2.2.7 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tzu Ta | Np Nb Nt Nɡ Nç → sts mp mtʰ mk ntsʰdz
|
| k rk kr kj Nkj ɡr → kʰdz nɡ kʰr tʃh dʒ nkʰr
|
| ɡ → ∅ / _r
|
| 36.3.2.2.8 Proto-rGyalrongic to Wassu | k kr kj ɡ → k. k.r ts. ɡ
|
| ɡ ç → ∅ zɡ / _r
|
| 36.3.3.1 Old Tibetan to Amdo dialects | {d,ɡ,s,l,r} → {h,r} / #_
|
| k(ʰ){r,j} ɡ{r,j} → tɕ(ʰ) dʑ
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.2.4.1 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Čiwere | ɡ → ŋ
|
| 38 Tai-Kadai | 38.1.1.1 Proto-Tai to Ahom | ɡl → k(w)
|
| 38.1.1.2 Proto-Tai to Saek | {ɡ,x} → kʰ
|
| 38.1.1.3 Proto-Tai to Central Tai | ɡ x → k kʰ
|
| 38.1.1.3.1 Central Tai to Lungchow | ɡl → kj
|
| 38.1.1.3.3 Central Tai to Tay | ɡ → ∅ / _l
|
| 38.1.1.4 Proto-Tai to North Tai | {kʰ,ɡ}{l,r} → tʃ
|
| {pʰ,b} ɓ {tʰ,d} ɗ {kʰ,ɡ} {kʷʰ,ɡ} → p b t d k kʷ
|
| 38.1.1.5 Proto-Tai to Southwest Tai | ɡʷ → kʷʰ
|
| 38.1.1.5.1 Southwest Tai to Lao | ɡ{l,r} → kʰ
|
| ɡ ɣ → kʰ ɡ
|
| 38.1.1.5.2 Southwest Tai to Lü | ɡl ɡr → k kʰ
|
| {kʰ,ɣ} ɡ → x k
|
| 38.1.1.5.3 Southwest Tai to Shan | ɡl ɡr → k kʰ
|
| ɡ ɣ → k kʰ
|
| 38.1.1.5.4 Southwest Tai to Siamese | ŋ ɡ ɣ → {h,ʃ} kʰ ɡ
|
| 38.1.1.5.5 Southwest Tai to Black Tai | ɡ ɡl → k tʃ
|
| 38.1.1.5.6 Southwest Tai to White Tai | {kʰ,ɣ} ɡ ɡ{l,r} → x k tʃ
|
| 39 Tanoan | 39.1 Proto-Tanoan to Jimez | k(ʷ)ʰ kʷ(ʼ) ɡ ɡʷ → h ɡ k kʷ
|
| 39.2 Proto-Tanoan to Kiowa | kʷ kʷʰ kʷʼ ɡʷ → k kʰ kʼ ɡ
|
| 39.3 Proto-Tanoan to Taos | kʰ kʰʷ ɡ ɡʷ → x xʷ k w
|
| 39.4 Proto-Tanoan to Tewa | kʰ kʷʰ ɡʷ → x xʷ w
|
| 41 Trans-New Guinea | 41.2 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Asmat | ᵐb ᵑɡ → p k / V_V
|
| 41.3 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Binandere | ŋ ᵑɡ → ∅ ɡ / #_
|
| ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ nj → {p,ᵐb} {ⁿd,z} k z / V_V
|
| 41.4 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kaeti | {p,ᵐb} ŋɡ → b ɡ / #_
|
| ᵑɡ → ɡ
|
| ⁿd ᵑɡ → d k
|
| 41.5.1.1 Proto-Gorokan to Asaro | ʔ{l,d} ʔɡ → t k
|
| 41.5.1.5 Proto-Gorokan to Gimi | ʔv ʔm ʔɡ ʔr → t p k v
|
| 41.5.1.8 Proto-Gorokan to Move | ʔv ʔm ʔɡ ʔr ʔh → p b k t {s,f}
|
| 41.5.1.9 Proto-Gorokan to Siane | ʔŋɡ ʔd → ŋk t
|
| 41.5.1.10 Proto-Gorokan to Yagaria | ʔv ʔm ʔɡ ʔr ʔh → p b k t {s,f}
|
| 41.5.2.2 Proto-Kainantu to Awa | ʔw ʔb ʔd ʔɡ → m p t k
|
| 41.8 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kiwai | t ᵐb ⁿd {k,ᵑɡ} nj → {r,t} p {d,t} ɡ r / V_V
|
| 41.9 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Selepet | ᵑɡ → ɡ
|
| 41.10 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Telefol | ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ → b n k / V_V
|
| 41.11 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Middle Wahgi | ᵑɡ → {ᵑɡ,ŋ} / V_V
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1.1.1 Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish | b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / ! N_
|
| 42.1.1.1.1 Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish | mb nd ŋɡ → mː nː ŋː
|
| 42.1.2 Proto-Finnic to Livonian | dj lj rj ɡj → dʲ lːʲ rːʲ jɡ
|
| 44 Vasconic | 44.1 Proto-Vasconic to Aquitanian | ɡ → k / #_ (sometimes?)
|
| 44.2 Proto-Basque to Basque | {ɡ,ɣ} → {ɟ,ʝ} / {E,j}_
|
| ɡ → dʒ / {E,j}_ (“in some Biscayan areas”)
|
| 47 Most-Wanted Sound Changes | 47.1 List 1: Simple Consonant Changes | kʲ ɡʲ → k ɡ (Danish)
|
| r → ɡʟ → ɣ (Hiw) (http://is.gd/jCDLO1)
|
| 47.2 List 2: Conditional or complex consonant changes | b d ɡ → bː dː ɡː / V_V (some dialects of Italian; there may be more to it than this, since words like “repubblica” are in standard Italian and not just dialects)
|