(Note that I did not make the Index, I only converted it to HTML and made the search tool.)
On September 18, 2003, jburke created a topic on the Zompist Bulletin Board with the aim of allowing conlangers to examine trends in sound changes within natlang families. It has since expanded to provide conlangers with a general gist of plausible sound changes in general. The thread, in its current iteration, is available here: http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?f=10&t=1533. Many of the compilations of sound changes have either come from pages in the thread or from pages on the KneeQuickie Correspondence Library archives (available at http://kneequickie.com/archive/The_Correspondence_Library; the page at http://www.kneequickie.com/kq/The_Correspondence_Library has not yet been updated with subpages for sound changes); if an entry in this list has no known contributor listed, it is from KneeQuickie’s Correspondence Library.
The intended purpose of this document is to provide a tool in PDF form for conlangers interested in diachronic conlanging and linguistic change to be able to get a feel for what sorts of changes might plausibly occur. To that end, this document features a compilation of various historical series of diachronic sound changes (and on occasion some synchronic processes as well) that have occurred in natural languages. It is hoped that the changes featured within this document will be of use in these endeavors.
No warrant is made that the entirety of the information herein is complete or correct. The ZBB was migrated over to a different setup some years back causing many special characters to disappear. Further, not all sources use IPA transcription, and may be unclear or missing information. Additionally, when listing sources, Wikipedia pages may be given with https:\\ instead of http:\\, even though the page may have been accessed using http:\\ instead of https:\\; this is for security, although doing so may in reality be pointless.
Due to the limits of the LaTeX software (and the skills of its user), full nesting is not possible. It is hoped that readers will understand and it is one of the goals of this project to provide correct nesting as far as is possible. Additionally, some overlap or multiple versions of changes may be present due to the nature of submitted sound-change lists.
Finally, many thanks to all individuals who contributed to the Library. Without you, this document would not exist.
This document is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (CC BY-NC-SA) 3.0 license. Visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ for further details.
Questions, comments, corrections, suggestions, missing authors for those changes taken from KneeQuickie, or other feedback may be sent to Pogostick Man at the Zompist Bulletin Board or the New Conlang Bulletin Board, Pan Pogostick at Polskie Forum Językowe, the CONLANG mailing list, or to mailto:satorarepotenetoperarotas3@gmail.com. Submitting corrections or lists of sound changes, preferably sourced, is encouraged.
Unless otherwise noted, the symbols below stand for:
” = Stress
! = Except when…
(…X) = For any number of X remaining
X0 = The same/an identical X
Xn = X with a given tone
Xn = The nth X of a sequence or series
Xx = All X of a sequence or series
X̣ = Retroflex/emphatic X
# = Word boundary
$ = Stem boundary
% = Syllable boundary (or if X is one syllable away, or just representing a syllable in some changes from KneeQuickie or the ZBB)
∅ = Nothing/Null/Zero
A = Affricate
B = Back vowel
C = Consonant
D = Voiced plosive
E = Front vowel
F = Fricative
H = Laryngeal
J = Approximant
K = Velar
Ḱ = Palatovelar
L = Liquid
M = Diphthong
N = Nasal
O = Obstruent
P = Labial/Bilabial
Q = Uvular consonant; click consonant (Khoisan)
R = Resonant/Sonorant
S = Plosive
T = Voiceless plosive
U = Syllable
V = Vowel
W = Semivowel
Z = Continuant
For these Afro-Asiatic changes, s1, s2, s3, h1, and h2 are consonants, believed to have most likely been fricatives, of indeterminate reconstruction. Dashes denote stem boundaries.
The phonemic inventory of Proto-Afro-Asiatic has been reconstructed as follows:
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||||
| Plosive | p pʼ b | t tʼ tˡʼ d dˡ | c cʼ ɟ | k kʷ kʼ kʷʼ ɡ ɡʷ | ʔ | |
| Fricative | f | s sʼ z | x xʷ ɣ ɣʷ | ħ ʕ | h | |
| Lat. Fric. | ɬ | |||||
| Affricate | t͜s d͜z | |||||
| Trill | r | |||||
| Approximant | l | j | w | |||
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | i | u | |
| Open | a |
(From Fallon, Paul D. (2009), “The Velar Ejective in Proto-Agaw”. In Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Ojo, Akinloye and Lioba Moshi (Eds.), 10 – 22. Sommerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. http://www.lingref.com, document #2182, citing Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia); and from http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=\data\semham\afaset&first=1)
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
dz ʃ tʃ → ʒ s1 s2
dʒ → tʃ → ʃ
t → ∅ / _s#
ɬ → l
f → p
a(ː) → e(ː) / _{ʕ,q}$
q ʕ → ʔ h
a → o / #Cw_{(d)l,s3}
w → ∅ / #C_V, except _i(ː)
ʃ → s2 / {i,j}_
VNC → VːC[+voiced]
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
u o → i e
e → i / #N_C
e → i / #l_{P,C[+voiced]}
e → i / #b_
e → i / p_r
e → i / #{s,ʃ,tsʼ}_{k(w),ʔ}
e o → i u / #C_P
e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C
e o → i u / #{k(ʼ),x}_{t(ʼ),tsʼ}
e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C$
e o → i u / #P_{tsʼ,tʃʼ}
a → o / #{z,dʒ}_P
e(ː) → i(ː) / #C[+sibilant]_{d,n,r}
Cw → C
Vː → V / #K[-voice]_C
u → uː / #S[+voice]_P[-voice]
Vː → V / #C_C$ + $(V)C$ suffix
N → ∅ / V_{C[+sibilant],p}
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
x1 → k
x2 → k / #_
x2 s3 → ∅ ʃ / V_V
tʃ → ts
sx → ʃ
{ʔ,hx} → ∅
l → d / #_VC
l → n / #_VN
dʼ → tʼ
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
pʼ → b
z → d / Vj_
tsʼ → ʒ / V_
x1 → k
x2 → k / _#
x2 → ∅ / V_V
ʒ → {tʃ,ts}
ts → tʃ / _i
sx → tʃ
s1 → ʃ
ʔ → ∅
{h1,h2} → h
dʼ → tʼ
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
b → w / _$#
p → f / V_
z zː → j dʒː
s → ʃ / !V_
tsʼ → tʃʼ
x1 → k
x2 → k / #_
x2 → ∅ / V_V
{s3,ʒ} → ʃ / #_
{ts,ʒ} → tʃ / V_
s3 → ʃ / V_V
s3 → s / V_$#
tsʼ → tʃʼ
ɲ → n
h2 → w / #_
l → d / #_VC
l → n / #_Vb
dʼ → tʼ
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
b → w / V_V
p → f / V_
z → d / V_
z → ts / Vj_
x1 → k
x2 → h / #_
x2 → ɡ / V_V
ts tsː → s ts / V_
sx → ʃ
tsʼ → tʃʼ / #_
tsʼ → s / V_
ɲ → n
h2 → w / #_
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
b → w / V_V
pʼ → p / V_
pʼ → b
z → j / {#,V}_
z → dʒː / Vj_
zː → dʒː
s → ʃ / ! V_
tsʼ → tʃʼ
x1 → k
x2 → ∅ / V_V
ʒ → ʃ / #_
{s3,ts,ʒ} → s / _$#
ts → ʃ / V_
s3 → ʃ / #_
s3 → s / V_$#
s2 → ʃ
s2 → {s,tʃː} / V_
h1 → {h,∅} / #_
h2 → w / #_
l → d / #_VC
l → n / #_Vb
dʼ → tʼ
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
b → w / V_V
p → f
x1 → k
x2 → ∅ / V_V
x2 s3 → k ʃ / V_$#
s → s3 / V_(V)
s1 → ʃ
s2 → s / V_
ɲ → n
l → n / #_VN
dʼ → tʼ / #_
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
b → w / V_V
p → f
pʼ → b
z → d / V_
x1 → k
x2 → k / #_
x2 → ∅ / V_V
kʼ → k / #
tʃ ʒ → ʔj s
ts → s / #_
sx → ʃ
tʃʼ → tʃ
ɲ → n
h1 → {h,∅} / #_
h2 → w / #_
l → n / #_VC
dʼ → t
r → {r,lː} / V_
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
b → w / V_V
pʼ → ʔp
z → ts / Vj_
tsʼ → sʼ
x1 → k
x2 → h / #_
x2 → ∅ / V_V
x2 → ɡ / n_
x3 → ɡ / V_#
tsː → ts / V_
{s1,s3} → ʃ
s2 → tʃ / V_
tsʼ → {tʃʼ,s}
ɲ → n
l → n / #_VN
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
pʼ → {b,p}ʼ
z → {d,z} / V_
{x1,x2} → ɡ
kʼ → q
tʃ → ts
s1 s2 s3 → ʃ z tʃ
h1 → ∅
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
p → f
z → {d,z} / V_
kʼ → ɡʼ / #_
tʃ → ts
ts → ʃ / _i
s1 → ʃ
s2 s3 → tʃː tʃ / V_
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
tʃ dʒ → ts dz
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
b → m / #_Vn
ɡ → k / #{d,w}V_
ɣ → ɡ / #_Vx$
Pogostick Man, from Fallon, Paul D. (2009), “The Velar Ejective in Proto-Agaw”. In Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Ojo, Akinloye and Lioba Moshi (Eds.), 10 – 22. Sommerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. <http://www.lingref.com>, document #2182, citing Appleyard, David L. (2006), A comparative dictionary of the Agaw languages. (Cushitic Language studies, 24.) Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
NB: Does not include vowel developments.
{x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ∅ / at word boundaries
z dz ɡ → ɡ {z,dz} ɡ(ʷ)
{x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ɣ(ʷ)
kʼ kʷʼ → {ɣ,q} ɣʷ
ʔ → ∅
Pogostick Man, from Fallon, Paul D. (2009), “The Velar Ejective in Proto-Agaw”. In Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Ojo, Akinloye and Lioba Moshi (Eds.), 10 – 22. Sommerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. <http://www.lingref.com>, document #2182, citing Appleyard, David L. (2006), A comparative dictionary of the Agaw languages. (Cushitic Language studies, 24.) Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
NB: Does not include vowel developments.
{x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ∅ / at word boundaries
ɢ(ʷ) → x(ʷ) / else
{ts,tʃ} z dz → ʃ d dʒ
t → r / medially
Pogostick Man, from Fallon, Paul D. (2009), “The Velar Ejective in Proto-Agaw”. In Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Ojo, Akinloye and Lioba Moshi (Eds.), 10 – 22. Sommerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. <http://www.lingref.com>, document #2182, citing Appleyard, David L. (2006), A comparative dictionary of the Agaw languages. (Cushitic Language studies, 24.) Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
NB: Does not include vowel developments.
{x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ∅ / at word boundaries
x → ∅
xʷ ɢʷ → w ɣʷ
{ts,tʃ} dz → ʃ dʒ
t → j / medially
kʼ → χʷ / #_
kʷʼ → χʷ
ʔ → ∅
Pogostick Man, from Fallon, Paul D. (2009), “The Velar Ejective in Proto-Agaw”. In Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Ojo, Akinloye and Lioba Moshi (Eds.), 10 – 22. Sommerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. <http://www.lingref.com>, document #2182, citing Appleyard, David L. (2006), A comparative dictionary of the Agaw languages. (Cushitic Language studies, 24.) Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
NB: Does not include vowel developments.
{x,ɢ} → ∅
{xʷ,ɢʷ} → ∅ / at word boundaries
{xʷ,ɢʷ} → w / else
ts tʃ dz → sʼ tʃʼ z
k → {k(ʼ),q}
kʼ → {χʷ,qʷ} / #_
kʼ → q / else
ʔ → ∅
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
V{j,w} → Vː / C_C
eː oː → i u
{e,o} {i,u} → a ə
$VC$ → $CV$ “(This last rule turned all VC roots into CV)”
in → ŋ / #_C
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
aː → a
ħ ʕ → h ʔ
ts dz {t,ts}ʼ tʃʼ → s z sʼ ʃʼ
ŋ → ∅ / V_{ts,q}
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
sʼ → s
h → ħ / #_Vs
z → d / “when another sibilant is in the word nearby” and (word-finally?) when “noun-stem final”
{ɲ,ŋw} → n
V → ∅ / _# “in nominals”
ŋ → ∅ / #_CV
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
ə → i
h → ħ / _Vz
l → ∅ / #{d,tʼ}_VC
ɬ → s / #_VC
{ʃ,ts,z} dz tʃ {tʼ,tʃʼ} dʒ → s z ts tsʼ dʒ
f → p / #_V{Z,C[-voice],r}
pʼ → p
p → b / #dlV_
xw → ɣw → ħ
k → ɡ / _{w,j}
CVʕ → ħʔ / ! C = ɡw
ɡwVq → ʕ
k(w) → tʃ / #_Vt
ɡ(w) → dʒ / #_Vd
xV → k / _h
Kʷ → K
q → ∅ / _i
q → i / #_V{Z,C[+dental]}
ʕ → i / #_VR
qu → w / _{f,s} (sporadic)
ʔ → ʕ / _V{n,r,ɡ}
{h,ħ,q} → ʕ / C[+voice]_V
q → ʔ / _C[+dental]
{h,ħ} → ʔ / KV_
q → ʔ / h_
qh → ʕħ
ɣ → ʕ / ħ_
tlʼ → dl / #_Vħr
O[+lateral] → O[+palatal]
r → l / #_V(V)O[+labial]
r → ʔ / C_{t,w,j}# ! C = {ɡ,m,n,r,w,ʃ,x}
l → j / #_iC ?
l → r / #nV_C
l → n
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
n → l / #_Vb
n → l / #_(V){s,ʃ,h}V{m,b}#
n → l / #_V{m,b}{s,ʃ,h}
n → l / #_Vk
n → l / mV_C
n → l / CV_m
r → l / #(C)_c(C)# ?
r → l / #o_#
Mecislau, from Ehret, Christopher (1995), Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (Voices from Asia)
q → ʕ
{i,u} → ə
tlʼ → ɬ / _C[+sibilant]
ɣ → ɡ / #_VCH
ɣ(w) → ɡ / #_Vx
kʼ(w) → k / #dlV_
w → ∅ / _C
ʔ → ʕ / #K_r#
Khavaragh
p → f
θˤ kˤ → ðˤ q
ɡ → ɡʲ → dʒ
s → {ʃ,h} / in “anaphora and certain derivational prefixes. . .[t]his is common to many other Semitic languages as well”
ʃ → s
ɬ → ʃ
ɬˤ → dɬˤ → dˤ
m → n / “in certain contexts, notably in the nunation”
V{j,w}V → aː / some sequences
“assimilation in some of the longer vowels”
Pogostick Man, from Borg, Alexander (1985), Cypriot Arabic
NB: Changes may not be in chronological order.
S[+ voice] → S[- voice]
q → k
S → [+ voice] / {V,R}_V
S → [+ voice] / V_R
{θ,ð} {f,v} {x,ɣ} voicing neutralized “in contact with other fricatives”
S → F / _S
f θ → p t / F_
k x → c ç / _{j,E}
{l,n}j → jː
j → c / {O,r}
j → ∅ / Ck_$
nx → xː
∅ → F / N_{O,r} ! m_f
{ðˤ,dˤ} → ð
tˤ sˤ → s t
ʔ h → ∅ x
∅ → i / #al$_z
dʒ → z
ɣ ħ → ʕ x
w → v / _%
wː → v
j(ː) → ∅ / V_E
uː iː → oː eː / _ʕ
uː iː → oː eː / ʕ_
i → a / Cˤ_{q,ɣ,ʕ}
i → a / {q,ɣ,ʕ}_Cˤ
a → i / _C(C), when stressed
u → o / _{ʕ,ɣ,x,r}
u → o / {ʕ,ɣ,x,r}_
{u,a,i} → ∅ / _%, when stressed (short only)
Epenthesis in medial CCC clusters, often so that the syllable break is between the second and third consonants
uː iː → u i
a → a / _C[+ dorsal]
a → e / _(C)(C)i(ː)
aː → a / ! _#
a → {u,o} / P_
a → {u,o} / _P
a → ∅ / _t, in the feminine ending
aːʔ → e / E(C)(C)_#
aː → a / {Cˤ,w}_#
Pogostick Man, from Brustad, Kristen, Mahmoud Al-Batal, and Abbas Al-Tonsi (2010), Alif Baa: Introduction to Letters and Sounds, 3rd. Ed.; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic; At-Tonsi, Abbas, Heba Salem, and Nevenka Korica Sullivan (2013), Umm al-Dunya: Advanced Egyptian Colloquial Arabic; and from correspondence with my own Arabic professor, who is a native speaker of this dialect
θ ð → t d / “usually in numbers or cases where a short vowel has been deleted and it’s in contact with another stop, e.g. CA/MSA kaˈθiːr → EA ktiːr”
θ ð → s z
ðˤ → zˤ, occasionally tˤ
dˤ → zˤ (seems to be a sporadic change only affecting a few words, e.g. CA/MSA ˈdˤaːbitˤ → EA ˈzˤaːbitˤ)
dʒ → ɡ
i u → e o / only when short, ! _#
u → {o,u} / short only, _#
aj aw → eː oː / in U[+closed]
Vː → V / C_C{ː,C}V
V → Vː / C_CV in U[-stress]
V → Vː / _# + suffix
{i,u} → ∅ / VC_CV when unstressed (short only)
Some other short-vowel deletions
∅ → e / CVCC_CVCV (applies across word boundaries)
Resyllabification across word boundaries to prevent vowel-initial syllables
r gains emphatic status except when next to i, and even then it’s becoming more common in that environment
a(ː) → ɑ(ː) / near emphatics
a(ː) → ɑ(ː) / if ɑ(ː) is elsewhere in the word
a(ː) → æ(ː) / else (sometimes it seems more like ɛ(ː) to me)
q → ʔ / except in several words, two of which are al-Qâhira and musîqâ
Two consecutive consonants assimilate to the voicing of the second (obstruents only?)
{{s,z}(ˤ),ʒ}ʃ → ʃː
ʕ → {ʕ̞,ħ} / _h
Final short vowel loss
h → ∅ / in coda
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia Contributors (2013), “Hadhrami Arabic”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hadhrami_Arabic&oldid=580700095>
dʒ → j, occasionally ɟ or dʒ in educated speech
θ ð ðˤ → t d dˤ
q → ɡ
aː → eː / in Form VI (tafā‘ala) verbs, though these apparently coexist with forms having the original vowel as well, with semantic distinctions
aː → æː / when not near emphatics
Epenthesis (it seems i is preferred) breaking up final consonant clusters
V[-long] → ∅ / #C_C, in some words
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia Contributors (2013), “Hadhrami Arabic”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hadhrami_Arabic&oldid=580700095>
dʒ → j, occasionally ɟ or dʒ in educated speech
θ ð ðˤ → t d dˤ
dˤ q → ðˤ ɡ
aː → eː / in Form VI (tafā‘ala) verbs, though these apparently coexist with forms having the original vowel as well, with semantic distinctions
aː → æː / when not near emphatics
Epenthesis (it seems i is preferred) breaking up final consonant clusters
V[-long] → ∅ / #C_C (sporadic?)
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hass%C4%81n%C4%ABya
NB: Words borrowed directly from CA/MSA seem to be immune to these changes. Also, unless otherwise noted, changes also apply to geminate consonants.
dˤ q → ðˤ ɡ
f θ → v z̪ (the article isn’t exactly clear on what this second phone is)
ʔ → {∅,j,w} / depending on the environment; again, the article is unclear
x → χ (conjectured based upon the following but not outright stated in the article)
ɣː → ʁː → qː
ɣ → {ʁ,q}
V[-long] → ∅ / C_{C,#} (except for the feminine marker)
aj aw → eː(ʲ) oː(ʷ) (sometimes, the article is unclear)
The conditioning on these next two changes is conjectured based upon the source:
— j w → i u / #_CV
— j w → iː uː / #_CC
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic
k q → tʃ {ɡ,q} (ɡ is more common)
ɡʲ → j / in southern regions
ʕ → ʔˤ
aj aw → eː oː
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Arabic
dˤ dʒ q → ðˤ ʒ ɡ
aj aw → e(ː,j) o(ː,w)
∅ → ə / C_CV(ː,V)CC
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Arabic
q dʒ → ɡ ʒ
θ ð(ˤ) → t d(ˤ)
aj aw → eː oː
∅ → ə / CCV(ː,V)C_C
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic
t → t͜s / plain t only, distinguishable from the sequence ts
{a,i} → ə / short only; the change of short a blocked for some speakers before ħ ʕ
u → ə / short only, except near “a labial or velar consonant”
C[+labial/+velar] → ʷ / adjacent to short u
{u,ə} → ∅ / ! C_C(C)#
ə → a / near ħ ʕ
ə → ɐ / near emphatics
ə → ɪ / else
u → ʊ / short only
aː iː uː → ɑː eː oː / near emphatics
aː → æː / else
C1ˤC2 → C1C2ˤ
Cˤ → C / {#,V}_V
q → {q,ɡ}
dʒ → {d,ɡ} / if s or z occur somewhere else in the word
dʒ → ʒ / else
s → ʃ / if ʃ is somewhere in the stem after it
z → ʒ / if ʒ is somewhere in the stem after it
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%27idi_Arabic
NB: This is probably highly incomplete.
q x ɣ → ɡ χ ʁ
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic
dʒ q → ɡʲ ɢ
u(ː) → {ɵ,o}(ː)
Pogostick Man, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic
a → ɑ / near emphatics
a → ɛ (sometimes)
dˤ q → ðˤ {ɡ,q}
dʒ x ɣ → ʒ χ ʁ
aj aw → {aj,eː,iː aw,oː,uː}
Vː → V[-long] / _# (except as below)
V(ː) → Vː / in accented or stressed monosyllables
Maknas, from http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm “and other sources”
NB: ə could be realized as an ultrashort [a], [e], or [o] depending on its surroundings.
θ θˤ ð ɬ ɬˤ → ʃ ʃˤ z s sˤ
x ɣ kˤ → ħ ʕ q
Some mergers involving j and w
Frequent h-dropping
Stressed-vowel correspondences:
— aː → oː / ! _#
— i iː u uː → eə iːə oə uːə / _R
— iː → eː / _#
— a → aː / _$
— a → {a,ɛ} (not common)
— i u → e a / _R{$,#} (in verbs)
— i u → e o / _C{$,#} (in verbs)
— i → eː oː / else
— aw → aːw
— aj → eː / _$
— aj → ɛː / _#
Unstressed-vowel correspondences:
— {o,u}(ː) → iː / _$%oː
— oː → uː
— a → ∅ / _#
— a → _$%%(…)”
— a → ə / _R if ə in an adjacent syllable
— a → ə / R_ if ə in an adjacent syllable
— i → ə / _R if a frontal allophone of ə in an adjacent syllable
— i → ə / R_ if a frontal allophone of ə in an adjacent syllable
— u → ə / _R if a backed allophone of ə in an adjacent syllable
— u → ə / R_ if a backed allophone of ə in an adjacent syllable
— i → a / _R
— i → a / R_
— a i → aː eː / _%”
— u → ɔ / _C{$,#}
— u → ∅ / ! _Cː
— aj aw → eː oː
p b t d k ɡ → b v θ ð x ɣ / non-intial singletons
ʕ → ∅ / _{$,#}
j → ∅ / E_ (not clear whether only short E or long also)
at → aː / _# (in feminine noun endings)
Maknas, from http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm “and other sources”
NB: These aren’t all true sound changes per se, since Modern Israeli Hebrew was artificially revived and is an amalgamation of dialects.
{e(ː),ɛ} → ɛ
Vː → V[-long]
ə → a / near gutturals
ə → ɛ / #R_C or when breaking up what would otherwise be a three-consonant cluster; in the case of two schwas, only the first one is dropped
ə → ∅ / else
w θ ð ɣ → v t d ɡ (sometimes)
x ʕ → χ ʔ
sˤ tˤ ħ q → s t χ k
h → ∅ / _#
ʔ → ∅ / ! in onset of U[+stress] (colloquial)
h → ∅ (colloquial)
Cː → C[-long]
r → ʁ
Proto-Algonquian is believed to have had the following phonology, as provided for by the Wikipedia:
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal/Postalveolar | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Plosive | p | t | k | ʔ | |
| Fricative | θ s | ʃ | h | ||
| Affricate | t͜ʃ | ||||
| Rhotic | r | ||||
| Approximant | w | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | i iː | ||
| Mid | e eː | o oː | |
| Open | a aː |
The phoneme denoted as /θ/ may well have been actually /ɬ/ instead. Also, some debate exists as to whether or not /r/ was originally an /l/.
(From Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Proto-Algonquian language”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Algonquian_language&oldid=440788532>)
Pogostick Man with acknowledgment to dhok, from Warne, Janet Leila (1973), “A Historical Phonology of Abenaki”. <http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=46078&local_base=GEN01-MCG02>
hl → sː
ʔ → h / _l
l → n / #_
l → r
nr → rː
N → ∅ / _O
aː → a / _OO
a → e / #C_OO
a → ∅ / #_OO
V → ∅ / _#
iw → o / _#
w → ∅ / _# ! k(ː)_
j → ∅ / _# ! P_
w → ∅ / C_ ! C = K
j → ∅ / _C
i → ∅ / #w_
θ → n / #_
θ → s / _k
θ → r
ʃ tʃ → s ts
{x,h}S → Sː
sk → kː / ! _a
ʔs ʔts → sː tsː
oː aː eː iː → o ɔ̃ a i
Pogostick Man with acknowledgment to dhok, from Warne, Janet Leila (1973), “A Historical Phonology of Abenaki”. <http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=46078&local_base=GEN01-MCG02>
nθ nl → sː {sː,hl}
ʔ → h / _l
N → ∅ / _RO
aː → a / _OO
aː → ɔ̃
V[- high - long] → ∅ / #C_OO
a → ∅ / #_OO
V → ∅ / _#
iw → o / _#
w → ∅ / _# ! k(ː)_
j → ∅ / _# ! p_
w → ∅ / C_ ! C = K
j → ∅ / C_
{R,h} → ∅ / V_V (sporadic?)
θ → n / #_
θ → s / _k
θ → l
ʃ tʃ → s ts
nj → i / #_
{x,h}S → Sː
ʔs ʔts → sː tsː
sk → kː / ! _a
i → e / _R
oː eː iː → o a i
Whimemsz, from Goddard, Ives (1974), “An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 40:102 – 116
(W)V → ∅ / _#
we → o
o(ː) → i(ː)
W → ∅ / C_i(ː)
e → i / #_
θ → ʃ / C_
θ h {s,m,n,r} → ʃ ∅ ʔ / _C
tʃ → ʃ / _p
W → j / C_
W → n / {#,V}_
p k → k ∅
s → n / #_
s → h / {V,C}_
r → n / {#,V}_
r → h / C_
tʃ → θ
Vː → V[-long] / _CC
a(ː) → o(ː)
Whimemsz, from Goddard, Ives (1974), “An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 40:102 – 116
hʔ → ʔh
({C,#}V)ʔ → ({C,#}Vː)∅ / _C
i(ː) → u(ː) / o(ː)(C[-dental])(C[-dental])_
∅ → ʔ / CV[-long]_#
ʃ m → x w / _B
ʃ m → x w / B_#
ʃ m → x b / o(ː)_e(ː)
ʃ k m → s tʃ b / _{E,j}
ʃ k m → s tʃ b / E_#
(V[-long])N → ∅ / _#
∅ → h / #_V
eː → ei / j_
o(ː) → e(ː) / Cj_ (sporadic)
n → ∅ / _j
j → ∅ / C_
h → ∅ / _#
Whimemsz, from Goddard, Ives (1974), “An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 40:102 – 116
hʔ → ʔh
({C,#}V[-long])ʔ → ({C,#}Vː[+falling tone])∅ / _C
j → ∅ / {ʃ,θ}
i → u / o(ː)_
ʃ θ m → θ t w / _o(ː)
ʃ θ m k → θ t b tʃ / _e(ː)
ʃ {θ,t} m k → s ts tʲ bʲ / _{i(ː),j,#}
(V[-long])N → ∅ / _#
∅ → ʔ / #_V
n → ∅ / _j
Whimemsz, from Proulx, Paul (1989), “A Sketch of Blackfoot Historical Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 55:43 – 82
{θ,tʃ,ʃ,r} → t / unless adjacent to another consonant
∅ → x / _s ! _C{C,#}
j → s / ! C_
h → ∅ / ! _C
{ʃ,tʃ} → s / #_
{ʔθ,ʔr} → {ʔ,j,∅}
nr → s
h → x / _{p,k}
hkw → ʔk
nθ hs → sːt sː
m → ʔ / _p
nkw → ʔː
{n,s} → x / _t
ntʃ → ʔt
ns sk → {x,s} {x,sː}
θp tʃp ʃp → {x,sː} ʔp sːp
ʃ → x / _k
x → sː / {i,#e,ja,ke}_
x → sː / e(ː)_s
∅ → s / {i(ː),#e}_t
t → ts / _{i,e(ː),a}
∅ → s / k_i(ː)
sːː → sː
e → i / {#,k}_
{a,e,i} → o / _kʷ
∅ → j / {oːw,iːj}_i#
w → j / {r,k}_i#
∅ → i / r_w
w → ∅ / C_
{jiː,ja,ahi} {owaː,awa,awe} awi {iːwa,eːwa,aji,aje,ani} → i oː o(ji) iː / C_C
hi → ∅ / aː_
∅ → i / #_jC
∅ → i / C_jV#
a → o / _w
eLwi → iː
i(ː)wi → iː / medially
i(ː)wi → i / _#
j → s
w → j / _i
{iː,ij,j} → j / C_B
iji → iː
w → ∅ / {a,o}_iC
on → u / _iC
tem {k,p}en → mː nː
ket → tː (→ sː?)
ke(h) → tː ?
{k(ʷ)es,keθ} → sː
e → ∅ / O_ in #U (not universal)
{me,ne} → ∅ / #_O “(followed by truncation of following x)”
{we,wiː} → o / #_
tsi → ∅ / $_OO “(before a prefix; the first obstruent of the follow[ing] cluster then becomes ʔ)
aː → aa / W_ ! when _{C{C,ː},#}
aː → a / else
oː → o
a → i / ! at word boundaries
e → a / _#
{eː,iː} → i
jburke, from “Bloomfield and Leman”
o a → e o
e i → a e
p t k → {hp,∅} ht {hk,∅}
{(t)l,θ} → t
s → h
ʃ tʃ → {ʃ,x} s
w j → {v,o} {t,e}
{kC,Ck} → ʔ
C[- nasal] → ∅ / near nasals
m → ∅ / near nasals
p → {t,∅} / near consonants
W → ∅ / near nasals or t
Pogostick Man, from http://home.kpn.nl/cvkolmes/ojibwe/CorrCrOj.pdf and Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Cree language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cree_language&oldid=690521189>
we → o
e eː → i aː
ja → aː / C_
ʃjeː → seː
lwi → jo
wi → o / C_
{n,q,h} → ∅ / _s
q → h / _tʃ
N → h / _S
(t)ʃp → sp
{q,ʃ} → s / _t
θ → s / _k
l → h / _k
{n,q,h}ʃ {n,q,h}l → s {h,j,hj}
k → tʃ / _i
a → i / in some unaccented syllables (short only)
θ → t
l → j
Pogostick Man, from http://home.kpn.nl/cvkolmes/ojibwe/CorrCrOj.pdf and Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Cree language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cree_language&oldid=690521189>
we → o
e → i (short only)
ja → aː / C_
ʃjeː → ʃeː
lwi → jo
wi → o / C_
{n,q,h} → ∅ / _s
q → h / _tʃ
N → h / _S
(t)ʃp → sp
{q,ʃ} → s / _t
θ → s / _k
l → h / _k
{n,q,h}ʃ {n,q,h}l → ʃ l
ʃ → {ʃ,s} / in inland varieties; remains /ʃ/ in coastal varieties
k → tʃ / _i
tʃ → ts
θ → t
l → j
Pogostick Man, from http://home.kpn.nl/cvkolmes/ojibwe/CorrCrOj.pdf and Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Cree language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cree_language&oldid=690521189>
we → o
e → i (short only in southern dialects, both short and long in northern dialects)
ja → aː / C_
ʃjeː → seː
lwi → jo
wi → o / C_
{n,q,h} → ∅ / _s
q → h / _tʃ
N → h / _S
(t)ʃp → sp
{q,ʃ} → s / _t
θ → s / _k
l → h / _k
{n,q,h}ʃ {n,q,h}l → s {h,j,hj}
ʃ tʃ → s ts
θ → t
l → j
Pogostick Man, from http://home.kpn.nl/cvkolmes/ojibwe/CorrCrOj.pdf and Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Cree language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cree_language&oldid=690521189>
we → o
e → i (short only)
ja → aː / C_
ʃjeː → ʃeː
lwi → jo
wi → o / C_
{n,q,h} → ∅ / _s
q → h / _tʃ
N → h / _S
(t)ʃp → sp
{q,ʃ} → s / _t
θ → s / _k
l → h / _k
{n,q,h}ʃ {n,q,h}l → ʃ l
ʃ → s / in West Swampy Cree (remains /ʃ/ in East Swampy Cree)
tʃ → ts
θ → t
l → n
Pogostick Man, from http://home.kpn.nl/cvkolmes/ojibwe/CorrCrOj.pdf and Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Cree language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cree_language&oldid=690521189>
we → o
e(ː) → i(ː)
ja → aː / C_
lwi → jo
wi → o / C_
{n,q,h} → ∅ / _s
q → h / _tʃ
N → h / _S
(t)ʃp → sp
{q,ʃ} → s / _t
θ → s / _k
l → s / _k
{n,q,h}ʃ {n,q,h}l → s {h,j,hj}
ʃ tʃ → s ts
θ → t
l → {r,ð}
Pogostick Man, from Goddard, Ives (1982), “The Historical Phonology of Munsee”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 48:16 – 48
tʃ → t / in nouns
t s → tʃ ʃ / in diminutives
{θ,l} → r → l
{θ,ʃ} → {r,l}
w → ∅ / m_C
w → ∅ / {p,m}_#
w → ∅ / ! {k,p,m}_
Cʷ → C / _ə{(C){p,kʷ},m,w}
kw pw mw → kʷ pʷ mʷ
we → wə → oː / ! adjacent to {p,m,k}
j → ∅ / C_
ʔ → h / _C ! C = l, or when reduplicated
h → ∅ / _{s,x}
{nθ,nl} → hl
k → ∅ / h_ (sometimes restored via analogy, e.g., in verbs)
θ ʃ x → x s h / _{p,k}
{tʃ,ç} → h / _k
i o → iː oː
Vː → V[-long] / _hC
V → ∅ / _# ! some monosyllables and analogical developments, in the latter of which long vowels were shortened
{a,ə} → ∅ / _{x,h} “in the odd-numbered of any sequence of one or more short-vowel open syllables”; such vowels are considered “weak”
ə[+weak] → ∅ / #_C
ə[+weak] → ∅ / _C[+voiced] (sporadic)
a[+weak] ə[+weak] → ə ∅ / a_Z[+voiced]
NC sequences assimilate the nasal to the POA of the following consonant, which is then voiced
Synchronic alterations:
ə → o / _h{p,kʷ,w,m}
ə → i / _hC
ə → o / _x{p,kʷ,V[+round]}
ə → o / {p,m}_x
x → χʷ / o(ː)_{V,#}
ə → a / _x “[i]n a nonrounding environment”
ə → o / _ŋkʷ
V[+high] → ə / _j
V[+high] → ə / _w (sporadic)
Whimemsz, from Hockett, C. F. (1981), “The Phonological History of Menominee”. Anthropological Linguistics 23(2): 51-87; and Miner, Kenneth L. (1979), “Theoretical Implications of the Great Menominee Vowel Shift”. Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics 4(1): 7-25.
we je → o i / _C
we → o / #_
θ → s / _O
θ → r
V[-long] → ∅ / _# “[does not apply in disyllabic words containing two short vowels]”
∅ → h / V[-long]_#
H → ∅ / _m
{s,r} → h / _O
w → ∅ / h_V
a → o / $am_w
V → Vː “when V is the second vowel of a word and follows a short-vowel syllable. Does not apply in glottal words”
e → i / Vː%_ ! _H
N → h / _{O,r}
e → i / #(C)_ ! _H
e → i / _{k,m} “when in the second syllable of glottal words”
{w,j} → ∅ / C_#
C → ∅ / C_#
wi(ː) → o(ː) / C_w
ʃ tʃ → s ts
Vː → V[-long] / CC(G)_C{V,#} “[i.e., when following a cluster but not followed by a cluster. Only applies ‘after the first long vowel of a nonglottal word, and everywhere in a glottal word’]”
V → Vː / _CC in even syllables
Vː → V[-long] / _C{V,#} in even syllables; “does not apply in the second syllable of a non-glottal word”
e(ː) i → æ(ː) e
iː oː oʔ → eː uː uʔ “[blocked when iː or a C+G sequence follows anywhere in the word, but does apply if æ(ː) intervenes before any following iː or C+G]”
{wiː,jiː,weː,jeː,wæː,jæː} {wi,ji,we,je,wæ,jæ} → iː i / C_
æ → e / in odd syllables ! _{w,j,H}
r → n
wa ja → uə̯ iə̯ / C_
Pogostick Man, from Costa, David J. (1991), “The Historical Phonology of Miami-Illinois Consonants”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 57:365 – 393
tʃ → t / in nominal suffixes
t → tʃ / in diminutives
s → ʃ / _i (not universal)
s → ʃ / _iV
{θ,l} → r → l / V_V
{θ,l} → r → n / #_ (and possibly in other places as well)
{θ,l} → r → l
mV[-long] → ∅ / #_{ʰC,s,ʃ} (allophonic, “optional”)
{ʔ,h}{ɬ,l} → hs
{θ,l} → t / n_
{θ,ʃ,tʃ,ç,x,ʔ} → h / _C
C[-nas] → h / _k
h → ʔ / _{s,ʃ}
hs hʃ → sː ʃː / sporadic, usually {#,V[+front]}_
C[-voiced] → C[+voiced] / N_
VNs VNʃ → V[+nas]z V[+nas]ʒ / not universal?
S → ⁿS / #NV_ (sporadic)
s ʃ → ⁿs ⁿʃ / U[-nas] (highly sporadic)
{h,ʔ} → ∅ / _m
Pogostick Man with acknowledgment to dhok and Alex Fink, the former citing Audrey Marie (1986), The Fundamentals of Micmac Historical Morphology, citing Hewson, John (1973), “Proto-Algonkian Reflexes in Micmac”, and Hewson, John (1983), “Some Micmac Etymologies”, and the latter citing Hewson, John (1973), “Proto-Algonkian Reflexes in Micmac”
tʃ → ʃ / ! C_
n{θ,l} h{θ,ʃ} → ∅ s
{ʔ,h,N} → ∅ / _C
ʔ{θ,ʃ} ʔl → s ∅
x → ∅ / _{p,k}
ʃ → s
θ → l
k → χ / _(w)a(ː) ! #_
k → χ / a(ː)_
eːk → oχ / _w
o(ː) waː eː iː → u o e i
aː → a
(aw)aha → aː
{awa,iwa,iwi} → uː
{o,a}wi → oː
ehi → eː
{aja,iha,iji,ihi,ija} → iː
Whimemsz, from his own work; http://home.kpn.nl/cvkolmes/ojibwe/corrCrOj.htm; Bloomfield, Leonard (1946), “Algonquian”; and “various asides and statements in dozens of different journal articles and conference papers dealing with Ojibwe or PA”
NB: For this sound-change set, H is “either an */h/ or */ʔ/, but we don’t know which”.
we e → o i
w → ∅ / {t,r}_i
{θ,s,h,ʔ} → ∅ / _{p,t,tʃ,k}
θ → r
{ʔ,h}{s,r} → s
{ʔ,h} → ∅ / _ʃ
{n,r} → ∅ / _r
H → ∅ / _m
r → s / _k
{j,w}V[-long] → ∅ / C_# in disyllables with Vː or in tri(-plus-)syllables
{w,j}V[-long] → ∅ / Vː_# (Whimemsz is unsure if this change is across-the-board or not)
V[-long] → ∅ / V[-long]{w,j}_# (Whimemsz is unsure if this change is across-the-board or not)
jeː → iː / C_
ja → iː / C_C
j → ∅ / C_
r → n
Pogostick Man, from Mackie, Lisa (2006), “Fragments of Piscataway: A Preliminary Description”
NB: This is very incomplete, partially because it seems that the only source we have on Piscataway is a single document in rather poor condition.
*#we- retained
{θ,ʃ} → ɬ (conjectured based on 〈z〉 in the Piscataway source and on the lack of voicing in the original reconstructed sounds)
k → x
e → o / unclear conditioning
ʔ → h / _C
Whimemsz, from bin Muzaffar, Towhid, Computer Simulation of Shawnee Historical Phonology, plus “other corrections based on a few other papers plus my limited knowledge of comparative Algonquian”
we → o
θ r / ! _O
r → s / H_
r → ∅ / n_
N → ∅ / _O
{h,s,tʃ,θ} → ʔ / _O
r → ʃ / _O
e → i / #(C)_ “(but remains e in a few cases?)”
iː → i / _j
j → ∅ / C_i(ː)
je → i / C_
j → ∅ / {tʃ,ʃ}_eː
j → ∅ / {tʃ,ʃ,w}_aː
w → ∅ / t_i
wa → o / #_
V[-long] → ∅ / _{ʃp,ʃk}
V[-long] → ∅ / C_ʔC
V[-long] → ∅ / _hV
Vː → V[-long] / _#
Vː → V[-long] / _{ʔC,ʃp,ʃk,hV}
ʔ → ∅ / C{v,l,s}_C
ʔ → ∅ / _CC
∅ → ʔ / C{v,d}_{ʃp,ʃk,hV}
∅ → h / #_V
s → θ
r → l
∅ → i / #C_jVː “(for some speakers)”
ʃ → s “(for many speakers)”
The Wikipedia gives the following reconstruction, slightly adapted, for a hypothetical Proto(-Macro)-Altaic language, citing Blažek (2006) citing Sarostin et al. (2003) and porting over into IPA:
| Bilabial | Alveolar/Dental | Alveolopalatal | Postalveolar | Paltal | Velar | |
| Nasal | m | n | nʲ | |||
| Plosive | p pʰ b | t tʰ d | k kʰ ɡ | |||
| Fricative | s z | ʃ | ||||
| Affricate | t͜ʃ t͜ʃʰ d͜ʒ | |||||
| Trill | r | rʲ | ||||
| Approximant | l | lʲ |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | i y | u | |
| Mid | e ø | o | |
| Near-Open | æ | ||
| Open | a |
*z would only have ever existed word-initially; *r and *j would only have been medial. In addition, Proto-(Macro-)Altaic also is thought to have had a bitonal pitch-accent system, with the syllable carrying the tone.
It is important to note that the Altaic grouping is highly controversial and is not accepted by many mainstream linguists.
(From Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Altaic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altaic_languages&oldid=453651228>)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Altaic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altaic_languages&oldid=453651228>, citing Sarostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (2003), Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers
NB: Does not include clusters.
a → ə / _Ce
a → i / _Ci
a → u / _Cu
V → a / _Ca
u → a / P_Ce
{a,e,o,æ} i u y ø → ə i ua {u,ə} {ə,u} / _Ce
{a,æ,e,ø,i,y} o → i u / _Ci
e i {o,u} æ ø y → {ə,a} {i,ə} ə a {ə,u} {u,ə} / _Co
V → u / _Cu
pʰ tʰ kʰ → p t k
b → p / #_
b → w / ! _{a,ə,Vj}
tʃʰ → t
tʃ dʒ → t d / #_
tʃ → s / maybe ! _#?
dʒ → j
ɡ → ∅ / iV_
ɡ → k / else
{ʃ,z} → s
n → m / #_
ŋ → m / #_{æ,ø,y}
ŋ → {∅,n} #_ else
N → {m,n}
r → t / _{i,u}
rʲ → {r,t}
l(ʲ) → n / #_
l lʲ → r s / else
j → {j,∅}
U[+long] → U[-long]
Zhen Lin
NB: The ordering of these changes may be slightly anachronic.
p → ɸ
ɸ → w / V_V
(w)e → je
∅ → w / _o
w → ∅ / ! _{a,o}
au iu uu eu ou → ɔː juː uː joː oː
j → ∅ / _e
w → ∅ / _o
w → ∅ / k_a
ɸ → h / ! _u
ɔː → oː
“Affrication of /ti di/ probably happened very early. Denasalization of the prenasalized stops happened relatively later. Final /m/ merged with /n/ at some point, and [dʒ] (from */dj/) and [ʒ] (< */zj/) also merged.”
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Altaic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altaic_languages&oldid=453651228>, citing Sarostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (2003), Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers
NB: Does not include clusters.
{tʰ,d} {k,ɡ} → r {h,∅} / {C,V}_{C,V}
pʰ tʰ kʰ → p t {k,h}
b → p / #_
d → t
{tʃʰ,dʒ} → tʃ
ɡ → k / #_
{ʃ,z} → s
{nʲ,ŋ} → n / #_
ŋ → {ŋ,∅}
rʲ → r
l(ʲ) → n / #_
l(ʲ) → r / else
j → {j,∅}
U[+long] → U[-long]
Syllable pitches reverse, basically, for whatever reason
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Altaic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altaic_languages&oldid=453651228>, citing Sarostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (2003), Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers
NB: Does not include clusters.
a → {a,i} / _Ce
a → {a,e} / _Ci
a → {a,i,e} / _Co
a → {a,o,u} / _Cu
e o u æ ø y → {a,e} {o,u} {a,o,u a {a,o,u} {o,u,i} / _Ca
a e i o u æ ø y → {a,i} {e,ja} {e,i} {ø,y,o} {o,u,y} {i,a,e} {e,ø} {ø,y,o,u} / _Ce
i → e / P_Ci
a e u æ ø y → {a,e} {e,i} {y,ø} {i,e} {i,e,ø} {ø,y,o,u} / _Ci
e → {y,ø} / P_Co
e → {y,ø} / C_Po
e → o / P_Cu
e → o / C_Pu
a e o i æ ø y → {a,i,e} {a,e} u {o,u} e {ø,y,o,u} {o,u} / _Co
a e {o,u} æ ø y → {a,o,u} {e,a} {o,u} {a,o,u} {e,i,u} {i,o,u,y,ø} / _Cu
b → h / medially, ! {r(ʲ),l(ʲ)}_ or _ɡ
pʰ → {h,j} / #_
pʰ → {b,h} / medially
pʰ → b / #_U[+high pitch]
p → h (sporadic)
p → b
tʰ → d / _#
t(ʰ) d → tʃ dʒ / _i
tʰ → t / else
tʃ → dʒ / #_i
tʃ → d / #
tʃʰ → tʃ
ɡ → h / ! {C,V}_h
k → ɡ / ! #_
kʰ → ɡ / {C,V}_h
kʰ → k / else
z → s
ʃ → tʃ / #_a
ʃ → s / else
nʲ → dʒ / #_
nʲ → {j,n} / else
ŋ → ɡ / #_u
ŋ → n / #_{a,o,e}
ŋ → {∅,j} / #_
ŋ → {m,n,ŋ,h}
rʲ → r
l → {n,l} / #_
lʲ → dʒ / #_i
lʲ → d / #_
lʲ → l
j → {j,h}
Loss of syllable pitch and length
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Altaic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altaic_languages&oldid=453651228>, citing Sarostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (2003), Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers
NB: Does not include clusters.
o → {o,u} / _CV
æ → i / {s,ʃ,x}_Ca
{u,ø,y} æ → {o,u} ia / _Ca
y → u / P_C{e,i}
æ ø → i {o,u} / _Ce
æ → i / {s,ʃ,x}_Ci
æ ø y → ia {o,u} i / _Ci
{u,æ} ø → {o,u} i / _Co
ø → i / {s,ʃ,x}_Cu
{u,æ,y} ø → {o,u} ia / _Cu
p → b / medially
pʰ → p
t → dʒ / #_{æ,ø,y}
t → d / #_
tʰ tʃʰ → t tʃ
k → {k,ɡ} / #_
k → ɡ
kʰ → x / #_
kʰ → {x,k}
z → s
rʲ lʲ → r l
U[-long +low pitch] U[+long -low pitch] → U[+long] U[-long]
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Altaic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altaic_languages&oldid=453651228>, citing Sarostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (2003), Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers
NB: Does not include clusters.
a ø → {a,ʌ} a / P_Ca
a e i u æ ø y → a {a,ʌ,e} {ɯ,i} {u,o} {ia,ja,ɛ} {ia,ja} ɯ / _Ca
y → i / {r(ʲ),l(ʲ)}_e
e → ja / #_C{e,i}
ø → ʌ / P_Ce
i → e / {r(ʲ),l(ʲ)}_e
a {e,i} o u æ ø y → {ɛ,a} ɛ {ø,o} {y,u} {ia,ja,ɛ} {ia,ja} {y,ø} / _Ci
æ → a / P_Co
æ → ʌ / P_Cu
a e i æ ø y → {o,ja,aj} {ʌ,ɜ} ɯ {ia,ja} {o,u} {u,o} / _Co
e i æ ø y → {ɛ,a,ʌ} {ɯ,i} {e,a} {u,o} ɯ / _Cu
{pʰ,ŋ} → {∅,j} / #_
pʰ → p
tʰ → d / #_(V){lʲ,r(ʲ)}
tʰ → t
{t,tʃ} → d / #_
k → ɡ / _(V)r
kʰ → k
ʃ → tʃ / #_a
ʃ → s
m n(ʲ) → b j / #_
Loss of syllable pitch
The wiki at Firespeaker.org gives the following alternate list of sound changes from Proto-Altaic to (Pre-)Proto-Turkic.
Pogostick Man, from Firespeaker.org wiki contributors (2014), “Turkic sound changes”. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/Turkic_sound_changes>
{ʒ,dʒ} → j / #_ (marked as to Pre-Proto-Turkic)
{d,n} → j / #_ (?) (marked as to Pre-Proto-Turkic)
{N,l,r,ʃ,z} → ∅ / #_
p → ɸ → h / #_
d ɡ → t k (may have been part of a more sweeping merger; Firespeaker calls it “lenis-fortis”)
{d,n}ʲ sʲ → j ʃ / #_
rʲ → z
Pogostick Man, from Firespeaker.org wiki contributors (2014), “Turkic sound changes”. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/Turkic_sound_changes>
V[- long] → ∅ (shared with Old Turkic)
h → ∅ (shared with Old Turkic)
nʲ → j
b…n → m…n
d ɣ → t x / _#
d → t / #_ (“kind of”, something about evidence from borrowings)
V → V[- round] / U_
b → v / V_
v → w
ɡm rɡ → mɡ ɡr (this second one is listed as → rɡ but it might be a typo)
rd → dr (possibly sporadic and/or confined to Kazakh)
ɣ → w / {a,u,i,o}_
{e,æ}b ub → ew uw
{d,ɡ} → j / ø_
d → ð → j / V_
ɡ → w / V_
ew (→ øj) → yj
æ → e
s → tʃ / _Vtʃ
s → ç / _Vç
a → æ / ! _B
f → w / _V
f → p / else
ŋ → ɡ / syllable-final
Pogostick Man, from Firespeaker.org wiki contributors (2014), “Turkic sound changes”. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/Turkic_sound_changes>
NB: Most likely incomplete; all changes listed are stated as being “[s]hared with Nogay and Karakalpak”.
tʃ → ʃ
j → dʒ / #_ (did not occur in Qara Nogay)
dʒ → ʒ (did not occur in Qara Nogay or Central Nogay)
w → ∅ / ɯ_
Pogostick Man, from Firespeaker.org wiki contributors (2014), “Turkic sound changes”. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/Turkic_sound_changes>
j → ∅ / _l (sporadic?)
b → m / V_V (sporadic?)
{u,ɯ}w {i,y}w aw {æ,e}w → uː yː oː øː
ɣ → ∅ / V_V
æ Vh {ʕ,h} → ɑː Vː ∅ (seems to have largely been confined to loanwords from Persian)
j → dʒ / #_
x → q
nj → jn
∅ → U / #_{l,r} (not sure what 〈U〉 represents here; maybe just some sort of back vowel?)
e → i / _ɡ
e → i / k_y (maybe they mean k_j?)
Pogostick Man, from Firespeaker.org wiki contributors (2014), “Turkic sound changes”. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/Turkic_sound_changes>
{e,ɤ}ː → je (the second one is conjectured based on my admittedly sparse knowledge of Turkish; I can only guess that 〈ė〉 is some sort of back unrounded vowel)
o oɡ ø øɡ iɡ → wo ɥø oː øː iː
a{ɡ̌(ɯ),b} {o{ɡ̌,b},aɡ̌u} u{ɡ̌,b} → ɰa wo uː
iɡ̌ → ɯː → iː (but original ɯː unaffected?)
eɡ → {je,iː,ji}
d s {ʃ,z} → t ∅ s / V_V
s → ∅ / #_
{z,ʃ} → h
j → s (possibly only initially?)
Thompson reconstructs the following phonetic system for Proto-Viet-Muong:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m̥ m | n̥ n | ɲ̊ ɲ | ŋ ŋ̊ | |
| Plosive | p b | t t* d d* | c ɟ | k ɡ | ʔ |
| Liquid | ʍ w | l̥ l r̥ r | j̊ j |
| Front | Center | Back | |
| High | i iə̯ | ɨ ɨə̯ | u uə̯ |
| High-Mid | e | ə əː | o |
| Low-Mid | ɛ | ɔ | |
| Low | a aː |
Further, Thompson reconstructs Proto-Vietic as having had four tones, *A, *B, *C, and *D. In the development of Vietnamese, *B and *D merged.
Thompson lists a few occasional alterations between Muong Khen and Vietnamese, but I’m not sure exactly which two languages were being compared, so I’m shunting the alterations here.
| -o | : | *-əw |
| -u | : | *-əw |
| -i | : | *-əj |
| -e | : | *-əj |
| a | : | ɨa |
The -e : *-əj correspondence was listed as being rarer than the others.
(From Thompson, Laurence C. (1976), “Proto-Viet-Muong Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 13, Austroasiatic Studies II:1113 – 1203; Wikipedia contributors (2012). “Hanoi”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanoi&oldid=509052974>; Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Vietnamese Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Vietnamese_language&id=509331797>; Gage, William W. (1985), “Glottal Stops and Vietnamese Tonogenesis”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 20:21 – 36; and Thompson, Laurence C. (1979?), “More on Viet-Muong Tonal Developments”)
Pogostick Man, from Thompson, Laurence C. (1976), “Proto-Viet-Muong Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 13, Austroasiatic Studies II:1113 – 1203; Wikipedia contributors (2012). “Hanoi”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanoi&oldid=509052974>; Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Vietnamese Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Vietnamese_language&id=509331797>; Gage, William W. (1985), “Glottal Stops and Vietnamese Tonogenesis”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 20:21 – 36; and Thompson, Laurence C. (1979?), “More on Viet-Muong Tonal Developments”
Tonogenesis
| Reg | A | B | C | d |
| 1 | mid level | low rising1 | high rising | high rising |
| 2 | low falling | high-mid2 | high-mid2 | high-mid2 |
1. “Constricted” (laryngealized?)
2. Terminates in a glottal stop if no final stop
Presyllables don’t seem to have affected Muong much.
Initials:
s → h
cʰ → s
tʰ → h (Only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
{kʰ,ɡʱ} → x (Presyllables don’t seem to have affected this much)
m n → b d (Only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
{pj,bj} {tj,dj} {cj,ɟj} → b d j
ɓ ɗ → b d (Only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
{n̥j,nj,ɲ̊j,ɲj} → ɲ j
N[-voiced] W[-voiced] → N[+voiced] W[+voiced]
(h)ə{p,b} → t / _l
m → ∅ / _l
tɹ → tʰ
Miscellanea:
w → ∅ / tʰV_k (conjectured)
Pogostick Man, from Thompson, Laurence C. (1976), “Proto-Viet-Muong Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 13, Austroasiatic Studies II:1113 – 1203; Wikipedia contributors (2012). “Hanoi”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanoi&oldid=509052974>; Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Vietnamese Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Vietnamese_language&id=509331797>; Gage, William W. (1985), “Glottal Stops and Vietnamese Tonogenesis”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 20:21 – 36; and Thompson, Laurence C. (1979?), “More on Viet-Muong Tonal Developments”
Initials:
bʱ {tʰ,dʱ} {t*ʰ,d*ʱ} {kʰ,ɡʱ} → pʰ t tʰ kʰ (after *kʰ *ɡʱ, only first-register tones may occur)
(h)ə{p,b} (h)ə{t,d} (h)ə{c,ɟ} (h)ə{k,ɡ} → β dʲ ɟ ɡ
{pj,bj} {tj,dj} {cj,ɟj} → {β,w} dʲ ɟ
ɓ ɗ → m n (For some reason it seems that only first-register tones can occur in this environment)
{n̥j,nj,ɲ̊j,ɲj} → ɲ (Thompson appears to me to have hedged a bit on the last one; based on other evidence in the paper I’m sticking this one as a palatal nasal)
tʃ → Ω (This is my own notation. I don’t have a clue what the intermediate form was; became something else in different dialects)
N[-voiced] W[-voiced] → N[+voiced] W[+voiced]
((h)ə)p d → b t / _l
t → ∅ / _ɹ (only first-register tones can occur in this environment)
t*ʰ d ɡ → tʰ t k / _w
s → t(ʰ?)
{əkʰ,əɡɦj} → ɟ (I think Thompson implied this was just a bit of a kludge)
Finals:
l → ∅ / {i,e}_
l → j / else
c ɲ → t n / ! E_ (apparently the precursor to Vietnamese short *a was treated as a short vowel here)
Thompson seems to list some changes as affecting Modern Vietnamese but I was unsure of where to put them so they’ll go here:
a ɔ → ɨə uə
In the original those first vowels were underlined.
Pogostick Man, from Thompson, Laurence C. (1976), “Proto-Viet-Muong Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 13, Austroasiatic Studies II:1113 – 1203; Wikipedia contributors (2012). “Hanoi”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanoi&oldid=509052974>; Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Vietnamese Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Vietnamese_language&id=509331797>; Gage, William W. (1985), “Glottal Stops and Vietnamese Tonogenesis”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 20:21 – 36; and Thompson, Laurence C. (1979?), “More on Viet-Muong Tonal Developments”
Tonogenesis
| Reg | A | B/D | C |
| 1 | mid trailing | high rising | dipping |
| 2 | low trailing | low dropping1 | high rising2 |
1. Tense when _S#; laryngealized elsewhere
2. Laryngealized
Initials:
pʰ → f
kʰ → x (only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
{β,w} {dʲ,ɟ} → v z
ɹ → z (only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
bl → z
ml → mɲ → ɲ (Thompson seems to indicate that this may have become [l] as well; only seems to have occurred with second-register tones)
Ω cʰ → s tɕ
Vowels:
ɨ → i / _(ə)w
ɛ → a / _C[+palatal]
Miscellanea:
w → ∅ / tV_wk (conjectured)
Pogostick Man, from Thompson, Laurence C. (1976), “Proto-Viet-Muong Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 13, Austroasiatic Studies II:1113 – 1203; Wikipedia contributors (2012). “Hanoi”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanoi&oldid=509052974>; Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Vietnamese Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Vietnamese_language&id=509331797>; Gage, William W. (1985), “Glottal Stops and Vietnamese Tonogenesis”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 20:21 – 36; and Thompson, Laurence C. (1979?), “More on Viet-Muong Tonal Developments”
Tonogenesis
| Reg | A | B/D | C |
| 1 | mid trailing | high rising | mid rising |
| 2 | low trailing | low1 | high rising2 |
1. Level when _S#; dipping otherwise
2. Laryngealized
Initials:
pʰ → f
kʰ → x (only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
{β,w} → bj~vj~v
{bl,tl} → ʈ (?)
dʲ ɟ → z j
m → ∅ / _l
Ω cʰ → ʂ ʈʂ
ɹ → ʐ (sometimes?)
Finals:
c ɲ t n → t n k ŋ / a_ (short /a/ only)
c ɲ → t n / {i,e}_
{c,ɲ} → ∅ / else
Vowels:
ə → ∅ / {i,ɨ}_{p,m.w}
ə → ∅ / ɨ_j
ə → ∅ / u_{m,j}
The contrast between short /a/ and short /ə/ is neutralized when _w{k,ŋ}
a → aː / _{w,j}
ə(ː) ɛ → ɨ ɛə / _K
ɛ → a / _C[+palatal]
Miscellanea:
w → ∅ / tV_wk (conjectured)
Wikipedia gives the following reconstruction of Proto-Austronesian created by Robert Blust:
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Retroflex | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ɳ | ŋ | (q,ʔ) |
| Plosive | p b | t d | k ɡ ɡʲ | |||
| Fricative | s | ç | h | |||
| Affricate | t͜s | c͡ç ɟ͜ʝ | ||||
| Lateral | l | lʲ | ||||
| Tap/Trill | (ɾ,r,ʀ) | |||||
| Approximant | w | j | ||||
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | ə | ||
| Open | a | ||
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | iw | uj | |
| Open | aj aw |
Points of this phonology are in great dispute; Blust himself states this.
(From Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Proto-Austronesian language”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&oldid=453318098>)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Proto-Austronesian lanuage”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&oldid=453318098>
e → a / _s
s ts lʲ → h t n
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
j → {d,t} / #_
j z → d j
w → ∅ / #_
R → r
q → h / _#
{q,h} → ∅
iw uj → {i,?} i / _#
A:
— aj aw → ej ow / _#
B:
— aj aw → e ow / _#
C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
HəS → (h)ə(N)S / #_
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
r → {r,h} → {∅,h}
h → {∅,h}
w → b / i_#
ej ow → i u
“ə assimilated to the following vowel after the loss of *-r-”
a → ə
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
h → q / _# (might’ve been a retention?)
h → ∅
iw ow ej → i o e / _#
“*i and *u often become mid-vowels”
V(h) → V(q) / _# (again, might’ve been a retention?)
a →ə / _# (Meno-mene and Mriak-mriku only)
d → r / medial (Meno-mene and Mriak-mriku only)
r → h / _# (Meno-mene and Mriak-mriku only)
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
h → q / _# (might’ve been a retention?)
h → ∅
w → ∅ / i_#
ej ow → e o / _#
u i → o e / sometimes
V(h) → V(q) / _# (again, might’ve been a retention?)
S[+ voice] → ∅ / _N
S[+ voice] → ∅ / N_
u → i / _{s,t,r,n,l} (blocked in Pusu)
“[C]ontraction of adjacent vowels” (not in Besar)
b → ∅ / medial (sporadic)
thetha, from Blust, Robert (2013), The Austronesian Languages, Revised Edition
{q,h} → ∅
r → l
f → h
k t → ʔ k
n → ŋ
w → v
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
*T → t
{*D,*Z,z} → d / #_
*D → d / _#
*R → ɡ / #_
*R → {l,ɡ} / _#
ɲ → n
c → s
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
ə → a / V_V
ə → u / _#
*j {*D,z} → r d / V_V
*j → ɡ / #_
h *j → ∅ d / _#
*R → ɡ
q → ∅
iw → uj
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
ə → u
*D d → l r / V_V
*j → d / #_
{*j,*Z} z → l r / V_V
h *j → ∅ d / _#
*R → ɡ
q → ∅
h → ∅ / _#
iw → uj
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
ə → u
*D → l
*j → d / #_
{*Z,*j} z → l r / V_V
*j → d / _#
h → ∅ / _#
q → ∅
iw → uj
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
ə → a
Something happens to final voiceless stops but it isn’t clear in the paper
*D → r
*j → ɡ / possible exception in word-initial position?
*Z → r
z → r / V_V
*R → ɡ
r → d / #_ (?)
{s,c} → t
{q,h} → ∅
uj → i
iw → uj
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
ə → o
*j → ɡ / _#
{z,*Z,*D,*j} → d
*R seems to have had a few different reflexes, mainly one of /l ɡ j/; if /ɡ j/ occurred, /ɡ/ was more probable at word boundaries and /j/ was more probable medially
{q,h} → ∅
{s,c} → h
∅ → j / _iw#
ay → e / _#
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
*D → d
{z,*Z,*j} → d / V_V
*j → ɡ
R → {ɡ,r} / _#
R → r
{q,h} → ∅
iw → uj
Pogostick Man, from Himes, Ronald (2006), “The Kalamian Microgroup of Philippine Languages”. Paper presented at Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. 17Â – 20 January 2006. Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines. <http://www.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/papers.html>
{h,ʔ} → ∅
{z,j} → d
*R ɲ → l n
e → u / _Cu
e → i / _Ci
e → u / uC_
e → a / _C[- voice]#
d → r / V_V
Contrastive stress lost
Pogostick Man, from Himes, Ronald (2006), “The Kalamian Microgroup of Philippine Languages”. Paper presented at Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. 17Â – 20 January 2006. Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines. <http://www.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/papers.html>
O[- voice] → ʔ / _C
k → ∅ / _{V,#}
q → k
aɪ ai → ɪɪ ii (not sure if there’s a long vowel or hiatus here)
t → s / _i
s → t / _V ! _E
s → t / _#
∅ → ʔ / #_
∅ → ʔ / V_#
Pogostick Man, from Himes, Ronald (2006), “The Kalamian Microgroup of Philippine Languages”. Paper presented at Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. 17Â – 20 January 2006. Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines. <http://www.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/papers.html>
{t,k} q → ʔ k / _C
s → ʔ / _C
k → ∅ / _{V,#}
q → k
aɪ ai → ɪɪ ii (not sure if there’s a long vowel or hiatus here)
t → s / _i
s → t / _V ! _E
s → t / _#
s → c& _ (the paper doesn’t explain what this represents)
b → β / V_V
β → w / V[+ high]_a
ɡ → h / V_V
∅ → ʔ / #_
∅ → ʔ / V_#
Pogostick Man, from Himes, Ronald (2006), “The Kalamian Microgroup of Philippine Languages”. Paper presented at Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. 17Â – 20 January 2006. Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines. <http://www.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/papers.html>
{t,k,q,s} → k / _C
k → ∅ / _{V,#}
q → k
aɪ ai → ɪɪ ii (not sure if there’s a long vowel or hiatus here)
b ɡ → β V / V_V
∅ → ʔ / #_
∅ → ʔ / V_#
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
{*D,*Z} → d
{z,*j} → d / V_V
*j → ɡ / _#
*R seems to have had a few different reflexes, mainly one of /l ɡ j/; if /ɡ j/ occurred, /ɡ/ was more probable at word boundaries and /j/ was more probable medially
c → s
{h,q} → ∅
Something seems to have changed to əw finally but the paper may have an error here
iw → uj
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
ə → i
u → o / _#
{*D,*j} {d,z} → l r / V_V
*j → d / #_
h *j → ∅ d / _#
*R → ɡ
q → ∅ (not sure what happens word-finally to it)
uj iw → oj uj / _#
Pogostick Man, from Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1975), “Proto-Philippine Phonology”. Archipel 9(1):29 – 42; and from other changes and information from this document
h → ∅ / _#
ə → u
*T → t
{*D,*Z} → r / V_V
{*D,*Z,z} → d
*j → r / V_V
*j → d
*R → ɡ
r → l / _#
*c → s
q → ∅
iw → uj
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, K.A. (1981), “Reconstruction of Proto-Batak Phonology”. In Blust, Robert (ed.), Historical Linguistics in Indonesia I:1 – 20.
TinyMusic notes that this particular set of sound changes is with respect to the reconstruction of Proto-Austronesian by Dyen (1965), and that he had some trouble with *j.
w → ∅ / i_#
{a,e} → o / _w#
a → e / _j#
{ts,ʈ} {ɟ͡ʝ,ɖ} {lʲ,ɲ} {ʔ,x,s,h} ʀ → t d n ∅ r (velar fricative is conjectured; changes → d “unsure”)
q → ∅ / #_ (sometimes; “represented by *h in PB”)
z → j (fricative changes to approximant)
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
z j → j d
wa → u / #_
w → ∅ / #_
R q → r h
i iw u → ɔj ? ɔw / _#
C1C2 → C2
Nasal + stop clusters assimilate in POA
C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
l n → r l / #_ (sporadic)
d j → r ɭ (sporadic)
“Sometimes a reduction of [the] penultimate vowel”
a → aː / _C# (sometimes)
Whimemsz, from Blust, Robert (2000), “Chamorro Historical Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics 39(1):83 – 122
ə → u
ə → ∅ / VC_CV
V → ∅ / VC_CV (sporadic)
i u → e o / _C{C,#}
i u → e o / CC# (sporadic)
a → æ “(in some forms; environment and conditioning unclear)”
uj → {i,u}
iw → u
p c q → f s ʔ
k → ∅ / _# (sporadic)
k → h / ! _#
h → ∅
V0V0 → V0
b dz → p ts
d → ∅ / _#
ɟ → ʔ
l → d / _{C,#}
ɾ → ɡ
O → O[-voiced] / _{C,#}
∅ → j / i_a
∅ → w / u_a
∅ → w / a_u
∅ → w / #_V
j w → dz ɡʷ
ɡʷ → ɡ / _V[+round]
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
j → t / _#
j → d
z → j
w → ∅ / #_
R → r
h → ʔ / _# (sometimes)
h → ∅ / else
{iw,uj} → i / _#
A:
— aj aw → i u / _#
B:
— aj aw → aj aw / _#
C1C2 → C2
C[+ A POA]C[+ B POA] → C[+ B POA]C[+ B POA]
C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
H → {∅,h} / _əNS / #_
TinyMusic, from Tryon, Darrell (1995), Comparative Austronesian Dictionary
V → ə / _(C…)UU#
ə → a / _(C…)#
n → ɲ / “in the environment of i (sporadic)”
h → ∅ / ! _# (sporadic)
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
j → l
q h → h ∅
A:
— aw aj → əw əj / _#
B:
— aw aj → aw aj / _#
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
{l,d} z → r d
b → w / ! adjacent to another consonant
ə → u / _h#
R → ∅
h → ∅ / #_
h → {o,h,w} / V_V
iw uj → ju i / _#
A:
— əw əj → i u / _#
B:
— aw aj → e ó / _#
C1C2 → C2
Nasal + stop clusters “become homorganic”
HəS → (h)əNS
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
ɭ → lʔ / _#
ɭ → l
z → jʰ
w j fortite when non-final
b → {w,∅} / #_
R → ʔ / _#
R → r
h → ʔ / V0V0
h → ∅
“Aspiration of initial and intervocalic voiced stops and *z”
{p,t,k} b d ɡ → ʔ p t k / _#
ij uw → uj {uj,ój} / _#
V → Vː / ə(C…?)_
C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
HəS → (h)əNS / #_
TinyMusic, from Adelaar, Alexander (2005), “Malayo-Sumbawan”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):357 – 388
{l,j} z → r j
w → {∅,c} / #_
R → {∅,r,j}
iw uj → {ju,i} oj / _#
A:
— əw əj → o e / _#
B:
— aw aj → o aj / _#
Whimemsz, from Blust, Robert (2009), “Palauan Historical Phonology: Whence the Intrusive Velar Nasal?”. Oceanic Linguistics 48(2):307 – 336
aj aw uj → e o i
∅ → w / u_V
∅ → j / i_V
ə → ∅ / #_
∅ → ə / C_C “(for certain consonant combinations, which the paper doesn’t specify)”
h → ∅
ə → {e,o} / stressed; “(result of /e/ or /o/ unpredictable)”
p → w
wa → o / #_ when unstressed
V → ə / unstressed
{aw,əw} → o / _#
wə → u / #_
j l → r j
ə → ∅ / _j
j → ∅ / C_i
ə → ∅ / _#
ə → ∅ “(sporadic)”
t → ð / ! adjacent to S
s → t
ʀ → r / _C[+dental]
ʀ → s
d → r
ɖ → ɽ “(only one example)”
ɲ → n (except possibly to n when #_)
n dz → l r
rl → lː
ɟ → k / _C#
ɟ → s
ŋ → ∅ / C_#
t → {s,ð} / “unpredictably, to eliminate sV(C)t and tV(C)s sequences”
∅ → ŋ / #_V
q → χ (→ ʕ)
Whimemsz, from Blust, Robert (2002), “Kiput Historical Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics 41(2):384 – 438; and Blust, Robert (2007), “Òma Lóngh Historical Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(1):1 – 53
q → ʔ
{ʔ,h} → ∅ / #_
{ʔ,h} → ∅ / V1[+high]_V2
h → ∅ / _#
h → ʔ / V0_V0
h → ʔ / a_{i,u}
ə → ∅ / adjacent to a vowel
a → ə / _UU(U…)#
ə → ∅ / _V
ə → ∅ VC_CV
Nasal assimilation to following stops in some words; in other words it results in a geminate stop
Postvocalic obstruents with different POAs become geminates of the second when “in reduplicated monosyllabic roots” and “in non-reduplicated bases which had undergone the change of schwa syncope in medial syllables”
C → Cː / ə_V (?)
ɟ(ː) → d(ː)
bː dː dzː ɡː → bʱ dʱ dzʱ ɡʱ (Whimemsz says these become “voiced stops with voiceless releases. . .treated as unit phonemes, not clusters)”
ə → ∅ / #_UU(U…)# “(i.e., in word-initial position in prepenultimate syllables)
pː tː cː kː → p t c k
c → s
Whimemsz, from Blust, Robert (2002), “Kiput Historical Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics 41(2):384 – 438
Stress reassignment to the final syllable
ʔ → ∅ / V_V
k → ∅ / V_V “(in some forms)”
ai au → ai̯ au̯ / _#
ə → a / _ʔ#
ai au → ɛː ɔː / _…#
i u → əi̯ əu̯ / _#
∅ → h / a_#
s → ∅ / V_V (sporadic)
V0V0 → V0
ə → ∅ / adjacent to a vowel
V[+stress] → Vː / _C# ! V = ə and/or C = h “(applies to diphthongal nuclei as well a[s] monophthongs)”
ʀ → {l,ɾ} / ! _# (the latter is more common)
l → ∅ / ! _# (irregular)
u → əw / _V “(also cases of (C)u → w /__V)”
i → əj / _V “(also cases of (C)i → j /__V)”
w j → v ɟ
iu̯ → ui̯
s → ∅ / _#
i u → ɛ ɔ / _C# ! _P (sporadic)
ʀ → ʔ / _# “(in a handful of forms)”
ʀ → ɾ
a → i / O[+voiced]…_(C)# “(blocked if there was an intervening nasal, and sometimes if there was an intervening voiceless stop or liquid)”
i u → əi̯ əu̯ / _(ʔ)#
əi̯ əu̯ → ai̯ au̯ / ! O[+voiced] earlier in the word
bʱ {dʱ,dzʱ} ɡʱ → f s k
f → s
v ɡ ɟ → f k c / V_V
v ɟ → f c / #_
{i,ɛ} {u,ɔ} → iə̯ uə̯ / _{k,ŋ}# “(and also sporadically before final *t and *n and some other consonants)
k ŋ → ʔ ∅ / Və̯_#
ə → {ə,a} / _C# “(free variants)”
NS[-voice] → Sː
“Numerous different possible reflexes of NS[+voice] clusters”
(C)V → ∅ / #_C… “(irregular)”
n → l / #_
ə → ∅ / #_
{l,ɾ} → n / _#
dz → d / #_ (though sometimes → {s,ɟ})
{s,c} → t / _V{s,c}V
b d → p t / _#
Whimemsz, from Blust, Robert (2007), “Òma Lóngh Historical Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(1):1 – 53
d → l / #_ (sporadic)
ʀ →h / V_V(C)#
ʀ → h / _#
ɻ → ∅
s → h / _#
i u → e o / _h#
h → ∅ / _#
S → S[-voice] / _#
l → n / _#
s → t / _VsVC
CV → ∅ / _NCVC “(in reduplications)”
Word-initial nasals assimilate to the POA of a following consonant
Whimemsz, from Blust, Robert (2007), “Òma Lóngh Historical Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(1):1 – 53
bʱ dʱ dzʱ ɡʱ → p t c k
i → e / _k#
i → iə / _ŋ#
p → k / u_#
u → o / _k#
u → o / _ŋ# “(sporadically failed to occur)”
u → ɯ / _(C)# ! _ʔ#
a → o / _# “(not in all forms)”
ʔ → ∅ / _# “(but aʔ → əʔ in some forms)”
k → ʔ / _#
a → ɛ / {t,n}_#
{p,t} n → c̚ ɲ / {i,ɛ}_#
m → ɲ / i_#
ai̯ au̯ → ɛ ɔ
{ui̯,iu̯} → e
i u → e o / _CV[+close-mid](C)# “(iə is treated as close mid for this change)”
i u → ɛ ɔ / _CV[+open-mid](C)#
i u → e o / _Cɯ#
ŋ → ŋ̊ / _#
{p,t} {m,n} → k ŋ / ɯ_#
i u → əj əw / _V(C)#
j w → z v
p → f / #_
ə → ∅ / #_
p k → f ɣ / V_V ! ”ə_V
d → r / V_V “(irregular)”
dz → ɟ / V_V
b d dz ɡ → p t c k / N_
N → ∅ / _S “(sporadic)”
h → ∅ / V_V
TinyMusic, from Tryon, Darrell (1995), Comparative Austronesian Dictionary
n → ɲ / “in the environment of i”
h → ∅ / ! _# (some exceptions)
a → o / _(C…)#
u i → o e (sporadic)
Chronologically-ordered changes:
— ə → a / _(C…)# (eventually spread to everywhere)
— m p → n t / {u,i}_
— a u → e uj / _{t,s}#
— a → o / _p#
— u i → uə iə / _{k,ŋ,h,l,r}#
— {p,t,k} s → ʔ h / _#
— {l,r} → ∅ / _# (retained across morpheme boundaries)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Proto-Austronesian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&oldid=453318098>
mb → p
{nts,ns,nz,nɡʲ} {ts,z,ɡʲ} → ɡʲ s
{ŋk,ŋɡ} ɡ → ɡ k
d → r
e {uj,iw} → o i
aw → o / _#
Chris Zoller, from Trask, R.L. (1996), Historical Linguistics
NB: Zoller states that these changes are “[s]implified”.
{h,ʔ} → ∅
{s,f} → h
k t → ʔ k
ŋ r v → n l w
thetha, from François, Alexander (2005), “Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen north Vanuatu languages”, and François, Alexander (2010), “Phonotactics and the prestopped velar lateral of Hiw”
p pʷ {c,*j} k q → β βʷ s ɣ ∅
β b m → βʷ bʷ mʷ / typically near *u
dr *r → d r
C → ∅ / _#
ɲ → n
b d ɡ → p t k
βʷ bʷ mʷ → w kʷ ŋʷ
l → j
s → h → ∅ (sporadic)
r → ɡʟ
”V[+ high(er)] → ∅ / _CV
”V → ə / _CV
”ə sometimes assimilates to a following vowel
a → e / _CV[+ mid] (sporadic)
a → e / _Ci (sporadic)
a(C)V[+ high] a(C)V[+ mid] aCa → ɔ(C) a(C) {ɔ,a}(C)ə
e(C){V[- low]} e(C)a → e(C) e(C)ə
i(C)V[+ high] i(C)V[+ mid] i(C)a → i(C) i(C)ə {e,i}(C)ə
o(C)V[+ high] o(C)V[+ mid] o(C)a → ɵ(C) o(C) ɔ(C)ə
u(C)V[+ high] u(C)e u(C)o u(C)a → {u,i}(C) u(C)ə e(C)ə {u,ɵ}(C)ə
u → ʉ / ! Cw_
{e,i} → ɪ (sporadic)
V0V0 → V0
“[W]hen pretonic u was lost, its labialness was usually absorbed onto the previous consonant”
thetha, from François, Alexander (2005), “Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen north Vanuatu languages”
p pʷ k q → β w ɣ ∅
VV → V
ndr *R → d r
{c,*j} ɲ → s n
t → ʔ “often”
b bʷ d ɡ → p kpʷ t k
mʷ → ŋmʷ
thetha says “intervening consonants sometimes optional in the [following] sound changes”:
— iCV[- high] → aC
— eCV[+ mid] → ɛC
— eCV[+ low] → aC
— aCV[+ high] → {ɛ,œ}C
— aCa → {ɘ,a}C
— oCV[+ high] → øC
— oCo → œC (sporadic)
— oCV[- high] → ɔC
— uCV[- high] → oC
o e → ʊ ɪ
ia → ɪ “(only somoetimes?)”
V → ∅ / #_C”V
V → ∅ / CVC_C”V
CV1C”V2 → CV2C”V2
thetha, from François, Alexander (2005), “Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen north Vanuatu languages”
q → ∅
V0V0 → V0
ndr → d
R → r
d → r (sporadic)
p pʷ bʷ k ɡ → β w kpʷ ɣ k
mʷ ɲ → ŋmʷ n
{c,*j} → s
s → h “(often)”
r → j
o e i → ɔ ɛ ɪ / C_V[- high]
V[- high] → ∅ / {ɔ,ɛ,ɪ}C_
oCV[+ high] / ɪC (sporadic)
uCi → iC (sporadic)
u a → ʊ ɛ / _CV[+ high]
V[+ high] / {ʊ,ɛ}C_
o e → ʊ ɪ
aCV[+ high] → ɪ / when stressed unless primarily stressed
(C)V1C”V2 → (C)V2V2
V1 → ∅ / _”V2
V → ∅ / (C)V_VC”V
b β d → m p n / _{C,#}
kpʷ → k / _C (sporadic)
*u *o “sometimes offload their labialization onto the previous labial consonant” when they change to something else
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
c → s
{l,ɲ} → n
*R → ∅
r → ʈ
V → ∅ / _C”V
NS → ⁿS
CC → Cː (fortis)
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
pː pwː tː ʈː qː kː → pʰ pwʰ cʰ tʰ h jʰ
q {k,t} {s,ʈ} → k c t
k → ∅ / _{o,a}
N → ∅ / _#
V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
jʰ → h / _i
{p,pw,k} → ∅ / V_V
t c → l j / V_V
VnV → ṼlṼ
ⁿS → N / _#
u → i (typical)
u i → o e (not always)
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
q k {ʈ,s} → k c t̪
pː pwː t̪ː tː kː cː → pʰ hʷ t̪ʰ tʰ h jʰ
t̪ → l / V_V
Cː → Cʰ
t̪ t̪ʰ t tʰ → t tʰ c s
jʰ → h / _i
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
q k {ʈ,s} → k c t̪
pː pwː tː t̪ː kː cː → f hʷ t̪ʰ tʰ h jʰ
t̪ → l / V_V
Cː → Cʰ
t tʰ → c h / _E
t̪ t̪ʰ → t tʰ
jʰ → h / _i
bw mw → ɡ ŋ
n n̥ → ɲ ɲ̊ / _E
ONV → SʰṼ / Pije and Fwai
f → ɸ / Pije and Fwai
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
q qː k kː s sː → k kː c cː t̪ t̪ː
Cː → Cʰ
Velars were in the process of palatalizing
C → ∅ / _$(possessive suffix)#
∅ → j / #_a
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
V → ∅ / _#, often
k → c / V_V
k → c / _#
t → k
t̪ → t
k → ∅ / _{o,a}
cʰ → {ʃ,jʰ}
kʰ → h / _a
pw p t ʈ k c → (v)w v r l ɣ j / V_V
pw → w
ʈ → t
VnV → ṼlṼ
ⁿS → N / _#
SN → N[- voice]
pwʰ pʰ tʰ kʰ → fw f rʰ x / in Nelemwa
uCu → iCi
V[+ mid] → a / near nasals?
u i → o e / “in monosyllabic forms almost always”
”V → Vː (usually)
/ɨ ə/ gained
ŋ → n
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
C → ∅ / _# “sometimes”
k → c
k t s → j c t̪
p pw t̪ ʈ c → v (v)w r l j / V_V
t̪ ʈ → r l / _#
pw → w (sporadic)
{t̪,ʈ} → t
ɴq → ŋk
pː pwː tː qː cː → pʰ pwʰ tʰ h cʰ
q → ∅
jʰ j → h ∅ / _i
w → ɣ (sporadic, conditioning unknown)
ⁿS → N / _#
SN → N[- voice]
VnV → ṼlṼ
V → Ṽ / _N
ⁿS → N / _Ṽ
u → i “often”
u i → o e (not always)
ŋ → n
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
V → ∅ / _# (sporadic?)
q k t s → k j c t
pː pwː tː ʈ kː cː → f hʷ tʰ lʰ h s
ʈ → l / V_V
k c → ∅ {j,∅} / V_V
Cː → Cʰ
jʰ j → s z
s → h / _i
bw mw → ɡ ŋ
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
V → ∅ / _# (sporadic?)
q k {ʈ,s} → k c t̪
pː pwː t̪ː tː kː cː → pʰ xʷ t̪ʰ tʰ x s
t̪(ʰ) t(ʰ) → cʰ tʰ
Cː → Cʰ
p pw t {k,c} → {v,∅} w l ∅ / V_V
j → z
bw mw → ɡw ŋw (→ ɡ ŋ / _V[+ rounded])
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
q k s → k c t̪
pː pwː t̪ː tː ʈː cː kː → pʰ pwʰ t̪ʰ tʰ ʈʰ jʰ h
Cː → Cʰ
k → ∅ / _{o,a}
t(ʰ) → k(ʰ)
jʰ → h / _i
p pw t̪ ʈ k c → v w ð l ∅ j / V_V
V → ∅ / _#
SN → N[- voice]
ⁿS → N / _#
u i → o e / in monosyllables
au ai → ɔ ɛ
o → ɔ “sometimes”
a → {ɛ,e} “in some words”
ŋ → n
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
V → Ṽ / _N#
C → ∅ / _#
jʰ → θ
j → {ð,z} ?
thetha, from Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1992), “The Proto-Oceanic Consonantal System and the Languages of New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):191 – 207; and Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), “Structural Changes in the Languages of Northern New Caledonia”. Oceanic Linguistics 34(1):44 – 72
{t̪,ʈ} → t
ð → l
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
p → ∅ / _B
p → v
r → ∅ / d_
r → l
C → ∅ / _#
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
{t,k} → ∅ / V_V
k → {k,∅} / #_
q → {k,∅}
*R → l
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
mʷ → m
t → l / V_V
k → {k,∅} / #_
ŋ → n / _i
q *R → ∅ {l,∅}
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
mʷ → m
t → {t,l} / #_
t → l / _{u,i}
t k → l ∅ / V_V
r → l / _{u,#}
ŋ → n / _i
q *R → ∅ {l,∅}
thetha, from Guy, Jacques (1978), “Proto-North New Hebridean Reconstructions”
C → ∅ / _#
q → ∅
*R → {∅,r}
ɲ c *j → n s z
p pʷ k → v vʷ ɣ
b bʷ ɡ → p pʷ k
V[+ high] → ∅ / _# ! {p,z,d(r)}_
v t l r → p dr n w / _#
t → ts / _V[+ high]
”a → i / _CV[- high]
”a → e / _CV[+ high]
p ŋ → f ∅ / ”V_V
ɣ s d → ∅ {j dr} / _#
ɣ s d → ∅ {j dr} / “before a post-tonic vowel”
V → e / C_# ! C = j
V → ∅ / {”V,j}_
p v m → t θ n / _{a,e,i}
z → s
∅ → h / #_V (“it isn’t clear if this happens unconditionally”)
An /o ɔ/ distinction is gained somehow
thetha, from Lynch, John (2005), “The Apicolabial Shift in Nese”. Oceanic Linguistics 44(2):389 – 403; and http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/
C → ∅ / _#
q → ∅
*R → {∅,r} (the former seems more common)
ɲ c *j → n s z
m b → n̼ t̼ → n t / _{a,e,i}
p(ʷ) k → v(ʷ) ɣ
mʷ b(ʷ) vʷ → m p b
d ɡ → r k
{z,dr} → ts
u → i (“sporadic”)
a → e (rare?)
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
p q → v ∅ (in general, seems like there was something going on with conditioning in the case of *p?)
w → ∅ (? Tanibili [w] may just be phonetically determined)
C → ∅ / _# (except for *k?)
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
PU *p had occasional reflexes of p or ∅
p → w / _B
pʷ mʷ → w m
dr s l → {d,ɟ} {∅,s} {n,∅}
c ɲ → ∅ {ɲ,j}
t r l → {j,s} {j,∅} j / _u
t → s / _i
k → {k,∅} / #_
k → {∅,s} / _#
r → {l,n,∅}
*R → {l,∅}
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
PU *p had occasional h or ∅ reflexes
pʷ → vʷ
t k → r ∅ / #_ (though *t seems to have occasionally survived?)
t → {r,t} / _B
t → {r,t} / V_V
r → {l,∅} / _u
r *R → l ∅
l → ∅ (occasionally?)
c ɲ → ∅ n
ŋ → n / _i
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
PU *p seems to have remained; PU *w is listed as having both ∅ and w as reflexes although the latter may just be an epenthetic glide between vowels of unlike rounding
{s,*R} → ∅
p t {r,l} → ∅ s j / _u
pʷ bw → p b
t → {t,r,kʷ} / #_ (I’m not kidding. That’s what’s listed as the reflexes.)
k → {k,∅} / #_
t k → {t,r,kʷ,∅} ∅ / V_V
k → {∅,j} / _#
dr → ɟ / _i
d c ɲ → ɟ {s,∅} n
{r,l} → l (occasionally → ∅?)
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
p → ∅ / _u
p q → {v,p} ∅
r → ∅ / d_
k → ∅ / V_V
{s,*R} → r / _#
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
p t → ∅ {s,k} / _u
p → ∅ / _#
k → ∅ / #_
r → l / ! _#
pʷ bw mʷ → p b m
c *R → ∅ {l,∅}
ŋ → {ŋ,ɡ} (ŋ remains when _i)
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
p → v / _#
pʷ w → b ∅
t → {∅,t} / #_
t → s / _u
r → l / ! _#
c *R → ∅ {l,∅}
s → {s,d,c}
Pogostick Man, from Ross, Malcolm, and Åshlid Næss (2007), “An Oceanic Origin for Äiwoo, the Language of the Reef Islands?”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(II):456 – 498
w → {∅,w}
pʷ mʷ → p m
t → l / #_, in nouns
t → s / _{u,i}
t → l / V_V
r → l / ! _{u,#}
s → r / _#
c *R → {j,∅} l
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
m b → mʷ bʷ / _u
p → b(ʷ) (sporadic)
p → vʷ / _u (a change thetha reconstructs in order to account for phenomena in later posts about this group of languages)
p → v
k *R → ɣ r “(frequently)”
*R → ∅
dr → {d,r}
ɲ → j
n → ŋ / qV[- stress]_
n → ŋ / _V[- stress]q
c → s
t → c / _E
q (→ kw ?) → v (rare)
a → e / _(C)i
a → ə / _Ca
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
C → ∅ / _# ! C = t
t → s / _#
v(ʷ) → h
k → ∅ / V_V (sporadic?)
b(ʷ) ɡ → p(ʷ) k
s → h / “rarely”
s → θ / ! _i, occasionally
d {c,*j} → tʃ s
{n,ŋ} → ɲ / _E
w → v
l → tʃ / _{o,E}
q → ∅
V → ∅ / _# (with very few exceptions)
{r,h} → ∅ / _#
“a lot of word medial vowels get elided, sometimes even when they should be stressed”
{i,o} → e
u → o
i → o / {u,w}_
u → e / {θ,ɣ}_
u → e / _θ
ai → i / _C
ei → i
ua → ou
au → {u,o} “sometimes”
e → i / Ḱ_ “[tendency]”
e → i / _Ḱ “[tendency]”
a → o / P_ “[tendency]”
a → o / _P “[tendency]”
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
mʷ pʷ bʷ vʷ → m p b v
v → p / #_
v → f / C[+ sibilant]%
v → f / %C[+ sibilant]
r → *L (some sort of lateral?) / occasionally
s {c,*j} → h s
o → a
u i → o e (sporadic)
a → i / _CV[+ high]
“many word medial vowels lost”
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
*L → r
b d ɡ → p t k / {#,C}_
b d ɡ → m n ŋ / _#
b d ɡ → mp nt ŋk
f → p / #_
f → v / V_V
k → ɣ
ɣ → k / _i
s → h “often”
s → ∅ / _C (occasionally blocked)
i → e / O[+ labial]_
i → e / _O[+ labial]
e → o / K_
e → o / _K
a → o / {w,m,ŋ}_
a → e / _#
ə → {o,e}
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
h → ∅
*L → l
nr → d
b d ɡ → m n ŋ / _C
b d ɡ → p t k / _#
p → b / V_V
u → e / ɣ_# (? this change is a bit unclear)
ɣ → ∅ / _#
k → ∅ (perhaps doesn’t always happen but happens often)
{s,t} → h / _{n,l,r}
t → r / ! at word boundaries
ə → i
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
{vʷ,w} → kʷ
s c *J → {h,z} {s,z} z
ɡ q → k ∅
l → r
o e → {u,ə} i
a → o / _{P,Cu}
a → o / P_
a → e / _Ci
a → ə / _Ca
“vowels tend to lower near h”
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
t → r
b(ʷ) d → p(ʷ) t
ɣ → ∅
s → h “irregularly”
{p(ʷ),v}Vh → fV
/fʷ/ gained
u → {e,i} / _Cu
ə → a / in U#
ə → e / else
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
r → {l,i}
t → r
b(ʷ) d → p(ʷ) t
kʷ → {w,u}
ɣ → ∅ / E_
ɣ → ∅ / _E
ɣ → k
r → l / _Vl
c *j → s {z,s}
z → t
s → h “irregularly”
{p(ʷ),v}Vh → fV
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
kʷ → p / _#
kʷ → ∅ / _u
kʷ → ∅ / _a (rare)
kʷ → {w,u}
v → ∅ / _i
v → {w,u} (“sporadically”)
ɣ → ∅ / #_
ɣ → ∅ / _E
ɣ → ŋ
r → l / _{o,E}
r → i
d → t (often)
d → k / _ŋ
z → r
{s,c} → {h,s}
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
t → r
b(ʷ) d → p(ʷ) t
ɣ → ∅ / #_
ɣ → k
r → l
{c,*j} → s
s → h “irregularly”
{p(ʷ),v}Vh → fV
u → {e,i} / _Cu
ə → a / in U#
thetha, from Lynch, John (2001), The Linguistic History of Southern Vanuatu
r → {l,i}
d → r / _ŋ (occasionally elsewhere as well)
b(ʷ) d → p(ʷ) t
kʷ → ∅ / u_
kʷ → ∅ / _u
kʷ / {w,u}
ɣ → ∅ / {#,E}_
ɣ → ∅ / _E
ɣ → ŋ
c *j → s {z,s}
s → h “often”
z → r
thetha, from François, Alexander (2005), “Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen north Vanuatu languages”
p pʷ k q → β w ɣ ∅
VV → V
ndr *R → d r
{c,*j} ɲ → s n
t → ʔ “often”
β → f / #_ (usually)
β → f / else (rarely)
bʷ ɡ → kpʷ k
mʷ → ŋmʷ
i(C)V[+ high] → i(C)
i(C)V[- high] → i(C)ɪ
e(C)V[- low] → e(C)
e(C)V[+ low] → ɛCɛ
a(C)i a(C)u → {a,ɛ}(C) {ɔ,a,ɛ}(C)
a(C){o,e} → a(C)
oCa → ɔCɔ
uCV[+ high] → iC “sometimes”
uCV[- high] → uCʊ
oa {ae,ea} → uɔ iɛ
o e → ʊ ɪ
V → ∅ / #_C”V
V → ∅ / CVC_C”V
CV1C”V2 → CV2C”V2
b d → m n / _{C,#}
Ketsuban, from Hale, Mark, Historical Linguistics: Theory and Method
NB: “. . .the precise contrast between *s and *S, and *t and *T is unknown, as is the precise phonetic nature of *c and *Z.” Blust (v.s.) rejected *T and *D; according to his reconstruction. . .*s and *S were /ç s/, respectively. The substitution of /ts/ for *T is inferred from the Wikipedia article but may be incorrect.
K → Kʷ / _{C[+round],V[+round]}
V[+high] → ɘ / _C[-high]
V → ∅ / _#
V[+mid] → ɘ / _C[+high] when stressed
V → ∅ / ”VC_
V → ∅ / “in CV reduplications”
a → ɜ / _wo
f → ∅ / #_{C[-low],V[-low]}
f → ɰ / #_aCo
f → j / else
∅ → ɰ / #_aC[-low]
∅ → j / #_{aC[+low],V[-back],C[-back]}
∅ → w / #_{C[+round],V[+round]}
{i,u} {e,o} → ɨ ɜ
p {t,ts} c → pʲ tʲ rʲ
{ç,s} x → tᵚ ∅
m ɲ → mʲ nʲ
“The author does not elaborate on the complex development of vowels without an onset consonant, other than to say that a glide is inserted (*Saa > tᵚaɰ), nor does he go into more detail than to say that l and n generally develop into lʲ and nʲ before Proto-Micronesian front vowels, and l, r, and n turn into lᶬ, rᶬ, and nᶬ before a and lʷ, rʷ, and nʷ before Proto-Micronesian round vowels, but the author does not elaborate.”
Pogostick Man, from Blevins, Juliette (2007), “A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian? Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(I):154 – 198
NB: Blevins floats the idea that Proto-Ongan was a sister of rather than a daughter of Proto-Austronesian, but for reasons of simplicity in editing this document it is placed here.
b → ∅ / #_{u,i}
q → ∅ / #_V
q → k
{qʷ,ku,qu} → kʷ (note that PAn might have had *qʷ *kʷ → q {k,w} instead; may be a change from POn-PAn, if it existed)
{c,*C,s,*S} → c (again, possibly a change from POn-PAn, if it existed)
S → ∅ / _#
u a ə → {u,o} {a,e} e
ɟ ɡ *N *R → {ɟ,j} {ɟ,ɡ} {l,j} {l,r}
z → c (again, possibly evidence of a change from POn-PAn, if it existed)
h → {h,j,∅} (Blevins has marked what apparently is *ɟ but I’m assuming it’s an error)
e → ə / _N when unstressed ! Ḱ_ (?; included here based on a comment earlier in the paper, but not listed on the correspondence list)
{m,ɲ} n → {ɲ,∅} {ŋ,∅} / _# (first change marked “in progress?”)
aj → e
Pogostick Man, from Blevins, Juliette (2007), “A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian? Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(I):154 – 198
e → ə / _N, when unstressed (?)
n → ŋ / _# (?)
k(ʷ) → h(ʷ)
∅ → a / h#_ (that’s not a typo; this happens across the word boundary)
ɡ → j
e → {e,ə,o} / _V
e → ∅ / _# (?)
p → b / #_ (change seems to be ongoing)
/a e/ reduce when unstressed (change seems to be ongoing?)
Pogostick Man, from Blevins, Juliette (2007), “A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian? Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands”. Oceanic Linguistics 46(I):154 – 198
e → ə / _N, when unstressed (?)
n → ŋ / _# (?)
d → r / V_{V,#}
{w,r} → ∅ / {a,e}_#
∅ → e / C_#
p → b
aw → o
e → {e,ə,o} / _V
N → n / _{d,l}
ɡd ɡl → dː lː
Pogostick Man, from Chen, Chun-Mei (2006), A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai 313 – 320
t1 d1 d3 Z → t d ɖ ɟ
l *L → ɭ ʎ
b d2 → {v,b} z
S1 s c → s t ts
Vː → V[- long]
Pogostick Man, from Chen, Chun-Mei (2006), A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai 313 – 320
c ɟ q ɭ → t d ʔ l
Something about final stress and preceding /ə/
Pogostick Man, from Chen, Chun-Mei (2006), A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai 313 – 320
w → v / _#
Something about final stress and preceding /ə/
Pogostick Man, from Chen, Chun-Mei (2006), A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai 313 – 320
k r → ʔ ɣ
Something about final stress and preceding /ə/
Pogostick Man, from Chen, Chun-Mei (2006), A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai 313 – 320
{t1,c} {d1,z} d3 → t d ɖ
R l L → {r,ʔ} ɭ l
S1 s d2 *C → s θ ð ts (not sure what *C stands for here)
Something about echo-vowel epenthesis and stress that isn’t really clear from skimming it
Pogostick Man, from Chen, Chun-Mei (2006), A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai 313 – 320
{v,ʔ} ð → ∅ j
Long vowels acquire a high-low contour, but it looks like this is more prosodic than anything
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2016), “Tsouic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsouic_languages&oldid=602917078>
{*C,d} j *R → c z r
Proto-Northeast Caucasian is reconstructed as having had the following consonant inventory. Phonemes in parentheses or braces are so marked on User:Petusek’s page. Due to the inventory, the usual table format is modified.
| Nasal | Plosive | Fricative | Affricate | Cluster | Resonant | |
| Bilabial | m | (p) b | ||||
| Alveolar | n | t tʼ (d) | s (sː) | ts tsː tsʼ tsːʼ dz | st stː | r |
| Lateral | ɬ ɬː | tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ (dɮ) | l | |||
| Postalveolar | ʃ ʃː | tʃ tʃː tʃʼ tʃːʼ dʒ | ||||
| Velar | (x) (xː) | k (kː) kʼ (kʼː) ɡ | ||||
| Uvular | q qː (qʼ) qːʼ (ɢ) | |||||
| Pharyngeal | {ʕ} | |||||
| Glottal | {ʔ} |
My guess is that what I’ve transcribed here as length (it’s represented by doubled consonants in the source) is probably supposed to represent some sort of fortis-lenis distinction, given that in other places I think I’ve seen these doubled consonants in initial position, although I might be wrong, as I’m not very familiar with the morphology of the languages in question. Consonants such as *tsː are written 〈tts〉 in the source; unless it’s the actual fricative that is geminate, the stop is the doubled consonant.
The citation format for Nichols (2003) is modified from that found in Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Northeast Caucasian languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northeast_Caucasian_languages&oldid=610673712>, and is assumed to be the same article. The publication date for User:Petusek’s page is taken from the revision history at https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322.
(From User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251)
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
l → {l,r}
*b is “[p]rone to change to *m”
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
p → h
dz dʒ → {tsːʼ,z} {tsːʼ,dʒ}
{ts,st} → tʃ
tɬː dɮ → tɬ(ː) tɬː
kː ɢ → xʲ {qːʼ,ɣ}
{l,r} → ∅ (sometimes, only from original *l)
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
{ts,st} dz → s {tsːʼ,z}
stː → sː
dʒ → {tʃːʼ,dʒ}
tɬ tɬ(ː) tɬ(ː)(ʼ) dʒ → ɬ tɬ(ː) tɬ(ː)(ʼ) tɬː
q ɢ → x {qːʼ,ɣ}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
ts tsː tsʼ tsːʼ dz → sh ts tʃʼ ts(ː)ʼ tsʼ
st(ː) → ts
tʃ tʃː tʃːʼ dʒ → ts(?) tʃ tʃ(ː)ʼ tsʼ
tɬ tɬʼ tɬː tɬːʼ → ɬ tʼ tɬ tɬ(ː)ʼ
q qːʼ ɢ → x {q(ː)ʼ,ɡh} qʼ (not sure if that last 〈gh〉 should be ɣ)
s sː ɬː x xː → {s,ʃ} x ɬ {x,h} x
m → {m,n}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
*b is “[p]rone to change to *m”
{tsː,st} tsːʼ dz stː → ts z tsː s
tʃ tʃː dʒ → {tsʼ,tʃʼ} ʒ ts
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ → k {xʲː,kː} kʰ {ɡ,q}(?)
qːʼ → ʕ
ʃ ʃː ɬ ɬː → {s,ʃ} ʃ xʲ {xʲ,ʃ}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
b d → {b,v} z
The development of *tsʼ is unclear; in the user page there’s a slash but it might be a typo for an apostrophe
{tsː,st} {tsːʼ,dz} → ts tsʼ
{tʃ(ː),dʒ} → tʃʼ
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ dɮ → k {k,xʲ} {kʼ,ɡ} {kʼ,kː} kʼ
kː kʼ ɡ → k {kʼ,ɡ} {kʼ,kː}
{qːʼ,ɢ} → qʼ
sː ɬ(ː) xː → h xʲ x
r → n / _C
r → {r,∅}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
b d → {pː,b} {tː,d} (but *b is “[p]rone to change to *m”)
{tsː,stː} dz st → sː {tsː,z} ts
tʃ tʃː dʒ → {ts,tʃ} {tsʼ,tʃʼ} tʃ(ː)ʼ
tɬ tɬː tɬ(ː)ʼ dɮ → xʲ xː kʼ {kː,l}
ɡ → kː
qʼ qʼː ɡ → {qʼ,j} qʼ {qː,ɣ}
ʃ ɬ ɬː → s {xʲ,ʃ} xː
m l → {m,n} {l,∅}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
NB: These changes here probably aren’t “proper” sound changes, whatever that’s supposed to mean, but there doesn’t seem to be any particular sound change or set of sound changes that defines this family, so I’ve elected to go with something that seems to nearly work and note the exceptions.
q ɢ → {x,q} ɣ
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
b d → {b,w} {d,z}
{ts,st} tsː tsːʼ stː dz → {s,ts} {ts,tʃ} tː s z
tʃːʼ → tʃː
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ dɮ → xʲ x kʼ kː {,j,xʲ}
qːʼ → qː
ɬ(ː) xː → xʲ x
m → {m,b}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
d → r / _#
d → {d,tː}
{ts,st} tsː tsːʼ stː dz → s {s,ʃ} tsʼ sː ts
tʃ(ː) dʒ → ʃ tʃ
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ dɮ → ɬ ɬ(ː) kʼ tɬʼ tɬː
kː ɡ → x {kː,ɡ}
ɣ → q (more likely, *ɢ → q instead of → ɣ)
q qːʼ → x q(ː)ʼ
sː xː → {sː,h} x
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
b d → {pː,b} {tː,d}
{ts,st} tsː tsːʼ dz → {ʃ,tʃ} tʃ(ʼ) {tʃː,dʒ}
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ dɮ → xʲ {ɣʲ,ɡ} qʼ k(ʼ) {kː,ɣʲ}
kː ɡ → ɣ kː
ɣ → {qː,ɣ} (again, probably a difference in the development of *ɢ than this strict sound change)
qːʼ → q(ʼ)
ʃː ɬ ɬː x xː → ɣʲ j ʃ ɣ x
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
b d → {b,w} {d,z}
{ts,st} tsːʼ dz → {s,ts} {d,t} z
tʃ tʃː tʃːʼ → {ʃ,tʃ} ʃ tʃ
tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ dɮ → xʲ qʼ q(ʼ) {w,xʲ,j}
kː → x
qːʼ → q(ʼ)
sː ɬ(ː) xː → {ħ,xʲ} {sː,h} x
m → {m,b}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
b d → {b,w} {d,z}
{ts,st} tsː tsːʼ → {s,ts} {ts,tʃ} tsː
tʃ tʃː tʃːʼ → {ʃ,tʃ} {tʃ,dʒ} {tʃː,tʃʼ}(?)
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ dɮ → xʲ {ɣʲ,ɡ} k kː ɣʲ
kː → q
ɬ {ʃː,ɬː} xː → xʲ ʃ x
m → {m,b}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
ts tsː tsʼ tsːʼ dz → {∅,s} tʃ {∅,tsʼ} {tsʼ,tʃʼ} z
t → ∅ / s_
tʃ tʃː tʃʼ tʃːʼ dʒ → {∅,ʃ} tʃ ∅ tʃʼ {dʒ,tʃ}
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ tɬːʼ dɮ → {∅,x} q {∅,qʼ} qʼ {ɣ,l}
kː → q
q qʼ qːʼ ɢ → ∅(?) ∅ qʼ ɣ
{ɬ(ː),xː} → x
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
st stː → st(ʼ) st
tsː tʃː → ts tʃ / #_
tsːʼ → tsː
{tsː,tʃː,dz,dʒ} → tː / _#
tɬ(ː) tɬʼ tɬːʼ → x qʼ ʕ
kː qːʼ → xk(?) qʼ
ʃː ɬː xː → ʃ ɬ x
l → r / _#
r → d / #_
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
*b is “[p]rone to change to *m”
{ts,st} {tsːʼ,dz} → s ts
tʃ {tʃː,dʒ} → ʃ tʃ (the change of *tʃːʼ is conjectured for Bezhta, as the change is only listed in Tsez, but given the development of *tsːʼ I don’t find it unreasonable to put it here)
tɬ tɬːʼ → ɬ tɬ
ɢ → q
s xː → z x
l → {l,r}
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
*ɬ may have remained ɬ
*r remained when intervocalic
Pogostick Man, from User:Petusek (2010), “User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast Caucasian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petusek/Drafts/Northeast_Caucasian&oldid=351133322>, apparently citing Nichols, Johanna (2003), “The Nakh-Daghestanian Consonant Correspondences”, in Tuite, Kevin, and Dee Ann Holisky, Current Trends in Caucasian, East European, and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson 207 – 251
tsː tɬː → z l / V_V
tsː tɬː → s ɬ
kːʼ ɡ → k kʼ
q qːʼ → x(?) q
sː ʃ ʃː ɬ ɬː x → s ʒ ʃ l ɬ ɣ
r → {r,l,∅}
Wikipedia contributors (2014) give the following reconstruction for Proto-Northwest Caucasian consonants; due to the size of the reconstructed inventory, the usual table format has been modified:
| Stop | Fricative | Affricate | Resonant | |
| Plain Labial | p pː pʼ b | f | mˤ | |
| Palatalized Labial | pʲ pʲː pʲ bʲ | |||
| Labialized Labial | pʷ bʷ | |||
| Palatalized Labialized Labial | pʷʲ pʷʲʼ bʷʲ | |||
| Pharyngealized Labial | pˤ pˤː pˤʼ bˤ | |||
| Plain Coronal | t tː tʼ d | s z | ts tsː tsʼ dz | r n |
| Palatalized Coronal | tʲ | sʲ zʲ | tsʲ tsʲː tsʲ dzʲ | rʲ |
| Labialized Coronal | tʷ tʷː tʷʼ dʷ | tsʷ tsʷʼ dzʷ | ||
| Palatalized Labialized Coronal | tʲʷ tʷʲʼ | tsʲʷ tsʲʷ dzʲʷ | ||
| Plain Lateral | ɬ ɬː | tɬ tɬː tɬʼ dɮ | l | |
| Palatalized Lateral | ɬʲ(~ɬʲʼː) ɮ | tɬʲ tɬʲʼ dɮʲ | lʲ | |
| Labialized Lateral | ɬʷ ɬʷː | tɬʷ tɬʷː tɬʷʼ dɮʷ | ||
| Palatalized Labialized Lateral | ɬʲʷ(~ɬʷː) ɮʲʷ | tɬʲʷ tɬʲʷː tɬʲʷʼ dɮʲʷ | ||
| Plain Postalveolar | ʃ(~ʃː) ʒ | tʃ tʃʼ dʒ | ||
| Labialized Postalveolar | ʃʷ ʃʷː ʒʷ | tʃʷ tʃʷː tʃʷʼ dʒʷ | ||
| Plain Palatal | ɕ ɕː ʑ | tɕ tɕː tɕʼ dʑ | j | |
| Labialized Palatal | ɕʷ ɕʷː ʑʷ | tɕʷ tɕʷː tɕʷʼ | ||
| Plain Velar | k kʼ ɡ | x ɣ | ||
| Palatalized Velar | kʲ ɡʲ | xʲ ɣʲ | ||
| Labialized Velar | kʷ kʷː kʷʼ ɡʷ | xʷ | ||
| Palatalized Labialized Velar | kʲʷʼ ɡʲʷ | xʲʷ ɣʲʷ(?) | ||
| Plain Uvular | q qː qʼ ɢ | χ ʁ | ||
| Palatalized Uvular | qʲː qʲ ɢʲ | χʲ ʁʲ | ||
| Labialized Uvular | qʷ qʷː qʷʼ ɢʷ | χʷ ʁʷ | ||
| Labialized Palatalized Uvular | qʲʷ qʲʷː qʲʷʼ ɢʲʷ | χʲʷ ʁʲʷ | ||
| Pharyngealized Uvular | qˤː qˤʼ | χˤ ʁˤ | ||
| Pharyngealized Palatalized Uvular | qˤʲ qˤʲː qˤʲʼ | χˤʲ ɾˤʲ | ||
| Pharyngealized Labialized Uvular | qˤʷ qˤʷː qˤʷʼ | χˤʷ ʁˤʷ | ||
| Pharyngeal Labialized Palatal Uvular | qˤʲʷ qˤʲʷː qˤʲʷʼ | ʁˤʲʷ |
(From Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Northwest Caucasian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Northwest_Caucasian_language&oldid=596995618>, presumably citing Starostin, Sergei A. and Sergei L. Nikolayev (1994), A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Northwest Caucasian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Northwest_Caucasian_language&oldid=596995618>, presumably citing Starostin, Sergei A. and Sergei L. Nikolayev (1994), A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary
{pʷ,pʲ} {p(ʲ)ː,bˤ} bʷ pʷʲ bʷʲ → p b f tsʲ dzʲ
mˤ → m
rʲ → r
tʷː tʷʲ(ʼ) → d(w) tʷ(ʼ)
tsʲː → dzʲ (marked as dubious in the source)
sʷʲ zʲ → sʲ z
tsʷː tsʷʲ → tsʷ (tʃ)
zʷʲ tsʷʲʼ dzʷʲ → dzʲ~zʲ tʃʼ dʒ~ʒ
tʃ(ʼ) dʒ → tsʲ(ʼ) dzʲ
ʃ(~ʃː) ʒ → sʲ sʲ
tɕː → dzʲ(~tɕ)
ɕ(ː) ʑ → ʃ ʒ (the change of singleton *ɕ to ʃ is marked as dubious)
tʃʷ(ʼ) tʃʷː dʒʷ → tʃ(ʼ) zʷ dzʷ~zʷ
ʃʷ ʃʷː ʒʷ → sʷ ʃ zʲ (this final change is marked as dubious)
tɕʷ(ʼ) tɕʷː → tʃ(ʼ) dʒ~ʒ
ɕʷ ɕʷː ʑʷ → ʃʷ ʃ ʒʷ
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ dɮ → x ts {x,tsʼ} l
ɬː → x
tɬʲ tɬʲʼ dɮʲ → xʲ ɕ ɣʲ
ɬʲ(~ɬʲʷː) ɮʲ → ɕ ʑ
lʲ → r / #_
lʲ → l~ɣʲ
tɬʷ(ː) tɬʼ dɮʷ → tsʷ tsʼ(ʷ) l
ɬʷ(ː) → ʃ
tɬʷʲ tɬʷʲː tɬʷʲʼ dɮʷʲ → tʃʷ ʒʷ tʃʷʼ dʒʷ
ɬʷʲ(~ɬʷː) → ʃ
ɮʷʲ → ʒ
kʷː → ɡʷ
kʷʲʼ → kʷʼ
xʷʲ ɣʷʲ → sʷ zʷ (*ɣʷʲ is marked as dubious)
q qː ɢ → (ħ) q ɣ (*ɢ is marked as *G in the document)
χ(ʲ) ʁ(ʲ) → ħ ʕ
qʲː ɢʲ → q ɣʲ
qʷ qʷː ɢʷ → ħʷ qʷ ɣʷ
χʷ ʁʷ → ħʷ ʕʷ
qʷʲ ɢʷʰ → ħ(ʷ) ɣ(ʷ)
qʷʲʼ → ʕʷ (qʷʼ?)
χʷʲ ʁʷʲ → ħ(ʷ) ʕ(ʷ)
qˤː qˤʼ → ʕ ħ (this latter is marked as dubious)
ʁʕ → ʕ
qˤʲ qˤʲː qˤʲʼ → q ʔ ħ(?)
χˤʲ ʁˤʲ → ħ ʕ
qˤʷ qˤʷː qˤʷʼ χˤʷ ʁˤʷ → ħʷ ʕʷ qʷ(ʼ) ħʷ (ħʷ?)
qˤʷʲ qˤʷʲ qˤʷʲʼ ʁˤʷʲ → qʷ ʕʷ ħʷ ʕʷ
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
tʃʷ(ʼ) tɕ(ʼ) dʒʷ dʑ → f(ʼ) ts(ʼ) v dz
ɕ ʑ → s z
”Vʕ ʕ”V → ”aa a”a (but stays /ʕ/ sometimes?)
ʕʷ → ɥ
tʷ(ʼ) dʷ → {tʷ(ʼ),p(ʼ)} {dʷ,b}
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
{tʃʷ(ʼ),tɕ} {dʒʷ,dʑ} → ts(ʼ) dz
tɕʷ(ʼ) dʑʷ → {tɕ(ʷ)(ʼ),tʃʷ(ʼ)} {dʑ(ʷ),dʒʷ}
ɕ ʑ → s z
ʃʷ ʒʷ ɕʷ ʑʷ → {ɕ(ʷ),ʃ(ʷ)} {ʑ(ʷ),ʒ(ʷ)} {ɕ(ʷ),ʃʷ} {ʑ(ʷ),ʒʷ}
{tʷ(ʼ),dʷ} → {tɕ(ʷ)(ʼ),tʃ(ʷ)(ʼ)} {dʒ(ʷ),dʑ(ʷ)}
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
tʃʷ tʃʷʼ dʒʷ tɕ(ʼ) dʑ → f pʼ ts(ʼ) v dz
ɕ ʑ → s z
”Vʕ ʕ”V → ”aa a”a
ʕ ʕʷ → aː ɥ
q qʷ → χˤ χˤʷ
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
tʃʷ tʃʷʼ dʒʷ → pʼ f v
”Vʕ ʕ”V → ”aa a”a
ʕʷ → ɥ
q qʷ → χˤ χˤʷ
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
tʃʷ(ʼ) tɕ(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) dʒʷ dʑ dʑʷ → f(ʼ) ts(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) v dz dʑ
ɕ ɕʷ ʑ ʑʷ → s ʃʷ z ʒʷ
”Vʕ ʕ”V → ”aa a”a
ʕ ʕʷ → aː ɥ
q qʷ → χ χʷ
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
tʃʷ tʃʷʼ tɕ(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) dʒʷ dʑ dʑʷ → f pʼ ts(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) v dz dʑ
ɕ ɕʷ ʑ ʑʷ → s ʃʷ z ʒʷ
”Vʕ ʕ”V → ”aa a”a
ʕ ʕʷ → aː ɥ
q qʷ → χˤ χˤʷ
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
tʃʷ(ʼ) tɕ(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) dʒʷ dʑ dʑʷ → f(ʼ) ts(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) v dz dʑʷ
ɕ ɕʷ ʑ ʑʷ → s {ʃʷ,ɕʷ} z {ʒʷ,ʑʷ}
”Vʕ ʕ”V → ”aa a”a
ʕʷ → ɥ
q qʷ → χ χʷ
Nortaneous, from Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (2003), “Abkhaz”. Languages of the World/Materials 119.
tʃʷ(ʼ) tɕ(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) dʒʷ dʑ dʑʷ → f(ʼ) ts(ʼ) tɕʷ(ʼ) v dz dʑʷ
ɕ ʑ → s z
”Vʕ ʕ”V → ”aa a”a
ʕʷ → ɥ
q qʷ → χˤ χʷ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Northwest Caucasian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Northwest_Caucasian_language&oldid=596995618>, presumably citing Starostin, Sergei A. and Sergei L. Nikolayev (1994), A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary
f → xʷ
pʲ(ː) pʲʼ bʲ → t(ː) tʼ d
pʷ pʷʲ pʷʲʼ bʷ bʷʲ → p tʷ tʷʼ b d
pˤ(ː) pˤ bˤ → p(ː) pʼ b
mˤ → m
r l → tː tħ / #_
l → ɮ
tʷ(ː) tʷʼ dʷ → t(ː) tʼ d
tʷʲ tʷʲʼ → ts tsʼ
ts tsː dz → {s,c} tsː dz~z
tsʲ tsʲː tsʲʼ dzʲ → (s) tsː tsʼ dz~z
sʲ zʲ → s z
tsʷ lʲ {qʲʷ,qˤʷ} → sʷ d qʷ / #_ (data not given for non-initial forms)
tsʲʷ tsʲʷ dzʲʷ → tsʲ tsʲʼ dzʲ
sʲʷ zʲʷ → sʲ zʲ
tʃ tʃʼ dʒ dʑ → s tsʲʼ(?) dz~z dʑ~ʑ
ʃ(~ʃː) → s
ɕ(ː) ʑ → ʃ(ː) ʒ
tʃʷ(ː) tʃʷʼ dʒʷ → tɕ(ː) tɕʼ dʑ~ʑ
ʃʷ(ː) ʒʷ → ʃ(ː) ʒ
tcʷ(ː) tɕʷʼ → tʃ(ː) tʃʼ
ɕʷ ɕʷ ʑʷ → sʲ ʃː zʲ
ɬ(ː) tɬ(ː) tɬʼ dɮ → ɕ(ː) tɕ(ː) tɕʼ tħ
tɬʲ tɬʲʼ dɮʲ → tɕ tɬʼ ɣ
tɬʷ(ː) tɬʷʼ dɮʷ → tʃ(ː) tʃʼ ħ
ɬʷ ɬʷː → x(ʷ) ɕː
tɬʲʷ tɬʲʷ tɬʲʷ dɮʲʷ → x tɕː tɕʼ ɮ
ɬʲʷ(~ɬʷː) ɮʲʷ → x(ʷ) ɣʲ
k kʼ ɡ → kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ
xʲ ɣʲ → ɕ ʑ
xʷ → x(ʷ)
ɡʲʷ xʲʷ ɣʲʷ(?) → ɡʷ xʷ ʁʷ
ɢ → ʁ
qʲʼ ʁʲ → ʔ ʁ
qʷ → qʷː / !_
qʷʼ ɢʷ → qʷː ʁʷ
qʲʷː qʲʷ ɢʲʷ,ʁʲʷ} χʲʷ → qʷː ʔʷ ʁʷ χʷ
{qˤː,qˤʼ} χˤ ʁˤ → qː χ ʁ
{qˤʲ,χˤʲ} qˤʲ ʁˤʲ {qˤʲː qˤʲʼ} → ħ ʔ j
{qˤʷː,qˤʷʼ} χˤʷ ʁˤʷ → qʷː χʷ ʁʷ
qˤʲʷ {qˤʲʷː,qˤʲʷ} ʁˤʲʷ → ħ ʔʷ w~ʁʷ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Circassian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Circassian_language&oldid=591849172>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Adyghe language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adyghe_language&oldid=593857358>
— Stress changes:
| ”Ca.Ca | → | CaːC |
| ”Ca.Cə | → | CaC |
| ”Cə.Ca | → | CəC |
| ”Cə.Cə | → | CəC |
| Ca.”Ca | → | Caː.Ca |
| Ca.”Cə | → | Ca.Cə |
| Cə.”Ca | → | Cə.Ca |
| Cə.”Cə | → | Cə.Cə |
— Consonant correspondences:
tsʲ → tɕ
tsʷ → tsʲʷ
tʃ tɕ → ʃ ʂ
ʔ(ʷ)~qʼ(ʷ) → ʔ(ʷ)
dɮ → ɣ
dzʲ dzʷ → dʑ ʑʷ
tsʲʼ → ɕʼ~ʃʼ
sʷ ɕ → ɕʷ~ʃʷ ɕ~ʃ
xʷ χʲ → f~ɸ? ħ
ɮ → l
zʷ → ʑʷ~ʒʷ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Circassian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Circassian_language&oldid=591849172>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Adyghe language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adyghe_language&oldid=593857358>
tsʲ(ː) → tɕ
tsʷ → tʃʷ
pː tː tsː tsʷ ʃː tʃː tɕː kʲː kʷː qː~qχ qʷː~qχʷ → p t ts tʃʷ ʃ ɕ tɕ tʃ kʷ qː qʷ
tʃʼ tɬʼ → ʔaj~ʔ ɬʼ
tʃʷʼ~ʃʷʼ → ɕʷʼ~ʃʷʼ
kʲʼ → tʃʼ
ʂː ʃː → ʂ ʃ
sʼ ʃʼ~ɕʼ → tsʼ ʃʼ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Circassian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Circassian_language&oldid=591849172>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Adyghe language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adyghe_language&oldid=593857358>
tsʲ tsʲː → tɕ tɕː
kʲ(ː) kʲʼ ɡʲ → tʃ(ː) tʃʼ dʑ
tsʷː → tsʲʷː
qː~χ qʷː~qχʷ → qː qʷː
tsʷʼ~ʃʷʼ → ɕʷʼ~ʃʷʼ
tɬʼ → ɬʼ
sʼ ʃʼ~ɕʼ → tsʼ ʃʼ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Circassian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Circassian_language&oldid=591849172>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Adyghe language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adyghe_language&oldid=593857358>
tsʲ(ː) tsʷ tʃ tɕ → tɕ tʃʷ ʃ ʂ
pː tː tsː tsʷː ʃː tsː tcː kʲː kʷː qː~qχ qʷː~qχʷ → p t ts tʃʷ ʃ tʃ tɕ kʲ kʷ χ~q χʷ~qʷ
p(ʷ)ʼ t(ʷ)ʼ tsʼ tsʷʼ~ʃʷʼ → pˤ tˤ tsˤ ʂʷ
tɬʼ → ɬˤ
ʂː ʃː → ʂ ʃ
sʼ ʃʼ~ɕʼ → sˤ ʂ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Circassian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Circassian_language&oldid=591849172>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Adyghe language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adyghe_language&oldid=593857358>
tsʲ(ː) tsʷ → tɕ tsʲʷ
kʲ(ː) kʲʼ kʷː ɡʲ → tʃ tʃʼ kʷ dʑ
q qʷ → qː qʷː / ! #_
pː tː tsː tsʷː ʃː tʃː tɕː → p t ts tsʷʲ ʃ tʃ tɕ
qː~qχ qʷː~qχʷ → qː qʷː
tsʲʼ tsʷʼ~ʃʷʼ → ɕʼ~ʃʼ ɕʷʼ~ʃʷʼ
tɬʼ → ɬʼ
ʂː ʃː → ʂ ʃ
ɣ → ɣ~ɡ
sʼ ʃʼ~ɕʼ → tsʼ ʃʼ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Circassian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Circassian_language&oldid=591849172>
— Stress changes:
| ”Ca.Ca | → | Caː.Ca |
| ”Ca.Cə | → | CaC |
| ”Cə.Ca | → | Cə.Ca |
| ”Cə.Cə | → | CəC |
| Ca.”Ca | → | Caː.Ca |
| Ca.”Cə | → | CaC |
| Cə.”Ca | → | Cə.Ca |
| Cə.”Cə | → | CəC |
— Consonant correspondences:
tsʲ(ː) tsʷ {tʃ,tɕ} → ɕ f ʃ
kʲ → tʃ
ʔ~qʼ → ʔʷ
pː tː tsː tsʷː ʃː {tʃː,tɕː} kʷː qː~qχ qʷː~qχʷ → b d dz v ɕ ʒ dʒ ɡʷ qʼ~qχ qʷʼ~qχʷ
dɮ dzʲ dzʷ dʑ ɡʲ → ʒ ʑ {v,w} ʒ dʒ
tsʲʼ tʃʷʼ~ʃʷʼ tʃʼ tɕʼ tɬʼ kʲʼ → ɕʼ fʼ ɕʼ {ɕʼ,cçʼ} ɬʼ tʃʼ
sʷ zʷ {ʃ,ʂ} {ʑ,ʐ,ɣʲ} ʑ χʲ → f v ɕ ʑ ʑ~ʒ χ
ʂː ʃː → ɕ ʒ
sʼ(?) ʃʼ~ɕʼ → tsʼ ɕʼ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Northwest Caucasian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Northwest_Caucasian_language&oldid=596995618>, presumably citing Starostin, Sergei A. and Sergei L. Nikolayev (1994), A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary
pʲ(ː) bʲ → t(ː) d
pʲʼ → tʷʼ
{pʷ,bʷ} → f
pʲː → tʷ~dʷ
pʷʲ bʷʲ → tʷ dʷ
pʷʲʼ pˤ pˤː pˤʼ bˤ → tʷʼ vˤ bˤ pˤʼ bˤ
t(ʷ)ː tʷʲʼ → t(ʷ) tʷʼ
{r,l} lʲ → d r / #_
l lʲ → ∅~j l~ɣʲ
r rʲ → r~ʁ ɮ
ts(ʲ)ː tsʷː dzʲ → ts tsʷ dz
z(ʲ) zʷ → dz(ʲ)~z(ʲ) dzʷ~zʷ
sʷʲ zʷʲ tsʷʲʼ dzʷʲ → tʃʷ ʒʷ tʃʲʼ dʒʲ
tʃ(ʼ) dʒ → ts(ʼ) dz
ʃ(~ʃː) ʒ → s z
ɕː tɕː → ɕ tɕ
ʃʷ(ː) ʒʷ tʃʷ(ʼ) dʒ → ʃ ʒ tʃ(ʼ) dʒ
tɕʷ(ː) tɕʷʼ → tɕ tɕʼ
ɕʷ ɕʷː ʑʷ → ʃʷ sʷ ʒʷ
tɬ tɬː tɬʼ dɮ → ɕ (sʲ) tsʲʼ ɮ
ɬ(ː) → sʲ
tɬʲ tɬʲʼ dɮʲ → ɕ tɬʼ ɕ ʁ(~zʲ)
ɬʲ(~ɬʲʼː) → ɬ
ɮ → ʑ
tɬʼ → tsʲʼ
{ɮʲ,lʲ} → ɮ
tɬʷ(ː) tɬʷʼ dɮʷ → tsʷ ts(ʷ)ʼ w
ɬʷ ɬʷː → sʷ s(ʷ)
tɬʷʲ tɬʷʲː tɬʷʲʼ dɮʷʲ → f dʑ tsʼ dʒ
ɬʷʲ(~ɬʷː) ɮʷʲ → ʃʷ ʒʷ
k kʼ ɡ x ɣ → kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ ɕ ɣ~ʁ
xʲ ɣʲ → sʲ zʲ
kʷː xʷ → ɡʷ x
kʲʷː xʲʷ ɣʲʷ(?) → ɡʲ kʲʼ xʲ ʁʲ
ɣ → ʁ
qʲː(ʼ) ɢʲ χʲ → qʲ(ʼ) ʁʲ xʲ
qʷː ɢʷ → qʷ ʁʷ
qʲʷ qʲʷː qʲʷʼ ɢʲʷ χʲʷ ʁʲʷ → xʲ qʲ qʲʼ ʁʲ χʲ ʁʲ
qˤʲ → q(ˤ)
qˤʲʷ {qˤʲʷː,qˤʲʷ} ʁˤʲʷ → χʷ qʷʼ w
Klar (1977) reconstructs the following phonemic inventory for Proto-Chumashan:
| Bilabial | Dental | Palatoalveolar | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m ˀm | n ˀn | ||||
| Stop | p pʼ | t tʼ | k kʼ | q qʼ | ʔ | |
| Affricate | ts tsʼ | tʃ tʃʼ | ||||
| Fricative | s (sʼ) | ʃ (ʃʼ) | h | |||
| Approximant | w ˀw | l ˀl | j ˀj |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | ɨ | u |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
Ablaut and vowel harmony appear to have been productive in the proto-language; it is possible that consonant harmony affecting sibilants was also productive. *ɨ may have been a loan phoneme.
(CatDoom, from Klar, Kathryn (1977), Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. <http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/klar-1977.pdf>)
CatDoom, from Klar, Kathryn (1977), Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. <http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/klar-1977.pdf>
R[- glottalized]VˀR → ˀRVR[- glottalized] / _$
R[- glottalized]VOʼ → ˀRVO[- ejective] / _$
CatDoom, from Klar, Kathryn (1977), Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. <http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/klar-1977.pdf>
k → tʃ “(‘in certain cases’)”
CatDoom, from Klar, Kathryn (1977), Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. <http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/klar-1977.pdf>
tʼ qʼ → t q
ˀN ˀw → N w
CatDoom, from Klar, Kathryn (1977), Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. <http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/klar-1977.pdf>
Sʼ → ʔ
q k → {q,k} {k(ʃ),tʲ} (allophonic)
{ˀm,ˀn} → {∅,ʔ} (the former is more likely)
ˀw → w (may have remained glottalized)
ˀj → ∅
CatDoom, from Klar, Kathryn (1977), Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. <http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/klar-1977.pdf>
ˀj → ∅
qʼ → q
CatDoom, from Klar, Kathryn (1977), Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. <http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/klar-1977.pdf>
ʔ → ∅ / _#
pʼ kʼ qʼ → p k q
ˀm ˀn ˀl ˀj → m n l j
McAlpin (1974) reconstructs Proto-Elamo-Dravidian as having the following phonemic inventory; the following table is slightly modified for reasons to be explained.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |
| Nasal | m mː | n nː | ||
| Plosive | p | t tː | c cː | k kː |
| Fricative | v (?) | s | ||
| Liquid | r̀ ŕ l lː | j | w |
| Front | Center | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
What here is denoted *s the author has *š for, but no other sibilant is readily identifiable in his paper. He makes mention of language written in cuneiform which may have influenced this convention. The phonemes *r̀ and *ŕ seem to have been contrastive rhotics. In *NS clusters, the nasal appears to have assimilated to the following stop.
(From McAlpin, David W. (1974), “Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian”. Language 50(1):89 – 101)
Pogostick Man, from McAlpin, David W. (1974), “Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian”. Language 50(1):89 – 101
w → v / #_{i,e}lV
w → v / V_
k ʃk → k* kː / V_V (the asterisk-marked k is what McAlpin terms “weak k”, which tends to drop out in morphology)
t → ∅ / #_VrC
t → {t,ʈ} / V_V
rt → ʈ / V_V
p → v / V_V
s → t / #_VLV
s → j / V_{V,#}
s → ∅ / #V_{r̀,l}
s → ∅ / C_V
s → ∅ / V_C
r̀ → r̲
ŕ → r / V_V
n nː rn → {n̲,r} n̲(ː) ɳ / V_V
nː → n̲(ː)
nr̀ → n̲r̲
l lː → {l,ɭ} ɭ(ː) / V_V
l → ɭ / V_#
Proto-Dravidian retained long vowels, possibly from the simplification of consonant clusters and/or deletion of intervocalic consonants with compensatory lengthening and/or the resulting vowels in hiatus merging
Pogostick Man, from McAlpin, David W. (1974), “Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian”. Language 50(1):89 – 101
{i,e,u} → ∅ / #_{t,n}a
e → {e,i} / #C_C
w → ú / V_ (McAlpin uses the accented-vowel notation due to some apparent height-contrast neutralizations before /a/)
k ŋk ŋkː → ∅ k kː / V_V
mp → p(ː) / V_V
c → s / #_{a,u}
ɲc → ns / V_V
r̀ → r / V_{V,C}
ŕ → rː / V_V
nr̀ → nr
l → n / V_#
v → m / #_V (?)
schwatever, from Shiffman, Harold F. A Reference Grammar on Spoken Tamil
aj → eː “(exception: never finally in monosyllables, never initially in multisyllabic words)”
avu aji → aw aj
i u → e o / _Ca
{k,v} → ∅ / V_V
aː eː iː oː uː → a ɛ i o u / _#
am an {aːm,aːn} → õ æ̃ ã / _#
{om,on} {em,en} {oːm,oːn} {eːm,eːn} → ɔ̃ ɛ̃ õ ẽ
um → ũ / _#
∅ → ɨ / _N#
{ɭ,ɽ} → ∅ (sporadic, the latter very much so and contributing some compensatory lengthening)
l ɭ → lːʉ ɭːʉ / _#(C)V[-long]
∅ → ʉ / {l,ɭ}_# if {M,Vː} previously in the lexeme
r → ɾ “in most dialects”
ɽ → ɭ
{ɾ,l,ɭ} → ∅ / V_S
i u → ɨ ʉ / short only when unstressed ! in #U
ɨ ʉ → ∅ / ! _#
∅ → {ɨ,ʉ} / to break up clusters
n → ŋ / _{k,ɡ}
i(ː) e(ː) → u(ː) o(ː) / {m,v,p}_C̣
j → ∅ / V[-front]_#
j → jːi / E_#
tː nt → cː ɲc / {i,j}_
ʈk → kː
n tː → n̪ t̪ː
ɳ → n “(sporadic and dialect development)”
ɭ → l “(again, sporadic)”
c → s / _{a,o,u,e}
cː → tʃː “(most dialects)”
o e → u i / _C{u,i} “(highly sporadic)”
“There’s also only a few changes necessary to turn this into the British dialect (which didn’t merge retroflexes with alveolars):”
— i(ː) e(ː) → u(ː) o(ː) / _ɭ
— eCə oCə → Ceː Coː / #_
The following phonological reconstruction of Proto-Eskimo-Aleut is adapted from Wikipedia.
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | |
| Nasal | m | n (nʲ) | ŋ | ||
| Plosive | p | t tʲ | k | q | |
| Fricative/Affricate | v | ð c sʲ | ɣ | ʁ | |
| Lateral Fricative | (ɬ) | ||||
| Approximant | l | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | ə | ||
| Low | a |
It is noted that *n and *nʲ may not have been distinct phonemes; the article cites Fortescue mentioning that Sirilenski Eskimo has instances of initial /j/ whereas others have /n/; that *c *sʲ may have been either fricatives (*s *sʲ) or affricates (*ts *tsʲ), the source being unclear; and that *ɬ may have actually arisen from *l + plosive combinations.
(From Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Eskimo–Aleut language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Eskimo%E2%80%93Aleut_language&oldid=573345407>)
Pogostick Man, from Marsh, Gordon and Morris Swadesh (1951), “Kleinschmidt Centennial V: Eskimo Aleut Correspondences”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Oct., 1951), pp. 209 – 216
a → i / i_
u → a / a_
p → h / #_
v → m / medial
v → w / a_a (in eastern dialects)
{t,ð} → n / _#
ð → t / else
∅ → t / #_s
z → s / #_
z → ð / medial
l̥ → l
m → w / #_
n → t / #_ (except, maybe, “in exclamations”)
dʒ → ð / i_ (in eastern and central dialects)
dʒ → ð / u_a (in eastern dialects)
i →∅ / #_{z,dʒ}
ə → ∅ / #_, “under certain conditions not yet discovered”
Deletion of medial vowels as per stress rules, “mostly affecting vowels before the accented syllable”
nV1nV2 → nV2nV2
Pogostick Man, from Marsh, Gordon and Morris Swadesh (1951), “Kleinschmidt Centennial V: Eskimo Aleut Correspondences”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Oct., 1951), pp. 209 – 216
ð z → t s
ɣ ʁ → k q / #_
ə → ∅ / t_, “in certain positions”
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
l̥ → l / medial
t → s / i_
ə → i / at word boundaries
ə → u / u_
ə → a / a_
ə → ∅ / else
ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
C0VC0 → C0ː
Regressive MOA assimilation and progressive voicing assimilation in consonant clusters (at least, when C2 is either /l/ or /l̥/)
m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[-nasal]
l̥ → t / _C
v → p / _s
v ʁ → p q / S_
v ɣ ʁ → p k q / _C (unless C = one of /l dʒ m n ŋ)
{p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
v → ∅ / u_i
dʒ → ʁ / i_u
ədʒ → i / _{a,u} (except in #U)
adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
ə → u / u_
ə → a / a_
Cː → C / except when CV_V in U1U2
t → s / i_
ə → i / else
dʒ → tʃ → s / “in certain positions” (except for Thule Greenlandic, where dʒ → tʃ and stayed there, apparently)
m n ŋ t {{ɣ,ʁ} → {k,q}} → p t k n ŋ / _#
m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[-nasal]
l̥ → ʁ / _C
v ʁ → p q / S_
v ɣ ʁ → p k q / _C (except where C = /l dʒ m n ŋ/)
{p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
S1S2 → F1F2
Some metathesis in consonant clusters, the conditions of which are not elaborated upon; the given example cited within the text is lʁ → ʁl
v → ∅ / u_a
iv → uj / _u
dʒ → tʃ / i_{u,i}
ədʒ → i / _{a,u} (except in #U)
adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
ə → u / u_
ə → a / a_
ə → i / else
ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
C0VC0 → Cː
Regressive MOA assimilation and progressive voicing assimilation in consonant clusters, at least when C2 is either /l/ or /l̥/
m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[-nasal]
l̥ → t / _C
v → p / _s
v ʁ → p q / S_
{p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
v → ∅ / u_i
ədʒ → i / _{a,u} (except in #U)
adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
ə → u / u_
ə → a / a_
ə → i / else
v → u
ɣ → u / “in some positions”
p k q s → v ɣ ʁ z / V_V
ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
Regressive MOA assimilation and progressive voicing assimilation in consonant clusters, at least where C2 is either /l/ or /l̥/
m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[+nasal]
l̥ → t / C_
v → p / _s
v ʁ → p q / S_
v ɣ ʁ → p k q / _C (except if C = /l dʒ m n ŋ/)
{p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
v → u / V_V
v → ∅ / u_V
v → ∅ / V_u
dʒ → ʁ / i_u
ədʒ → i / _{a,u} (except in #U)
adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
ɣ → ∅ / V_u
ɣ → ∅ / u_V
ɣ → u / {i,ə}_V
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
Cː → C
C → Cː / _V(…V) except in #U
S → ∅ / #_F
s → ts / in certain situations?
C[+voice] → C[-voice] / adjacent to {S,s,l̥}
ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
ə → a / _#
ə → ∅
i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
F[+voice] → F[-voice] / adjacent to {S,ts}
F[+voice] → S[+same POA] / l̥_
t → s / _{k,q}
i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
ə → i / u_
v → ∅ / u[+short]_V[+short]
v → ∅ / V[+short]_u[+short]
u → ∅ / #_vV
iv → j / #_u
s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
dʒ → ∅ / i_i
ə → ∅ / _dʒ{a,u}, except in #U
a → ∅ / _dʒa, except in #U
in → dʒ / _u (possibly only word-initially?)
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
Cː → C
C → Cː / _V(…V) except in #U
S → ∅ / #_F
s → ts / in certain situations?
C[+voice] → C[-voice] / adjacent to {S,s,l̥}
ɣ ʁ → x χ / _#
ə → a / _#
ə → ∅
i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
Regressive MOA and voicing assimilation in consonant clusters, at least when C2 is either /l/ or /l̥/
v ʁ → f χ / S_
F[+voice] → F[-voice] / adjacent to {S,ts}
F[+voice] → S / l̥_
t → s / _{k,q}
i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
ə → i / {u,a}_ (though aə seems to have become i in some circumstances)
v → ∅ / u[+short]_V[+short]
v → ∅ / V[+short]_u[+short]
u → ∅ / #_vV
iv → j / #_u
s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
dʒ → ∅ / i_i
ə → ∅ / _dʒ{a,u} except in #U
a → ∅ / _dʒa (except in #U?)
in → dʒ / _u (possibly only word-initially?)
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
Cː → C
S → ∅ / #_F
s → ts → tʃ / in some dialects?
C[+voice] → C[-voice] / next to {S,s,l̥}
ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
ə → a /
ə → ∅ / #_
i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
F[+voice] → F[-voice] / adjacent to {S,ts}
F[+voice] → S / l̥_
∅→ n / #_iN (This one is sort of a guess, given a singular example in the text that isn’t really commented upon)
t → s / _{k,q}
u → a / a_
ə → i / {u,a}_
v → ∅ / u[+short]_V[+short]
v → ∅ / V[+short]_u[+short]
u → ∅ / #_vV
iv → j / #_u
s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
dʒ → ∅ / i_i
ə → ∅ / _dʒ{a,u} except in #U
a → ∅ / _dʒa (except in #U?)
in → dʒ / _u (possibly only word-initially?)
Pogostick Man, from Swadesh, Morris (1952), “Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes”, International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 166–171
Cː → C
C → Cː / _V(…V), after #U
S → ∅ / #_F
s → ts / in certain situations?
C[+voice] → C[-voice] / next to {S,s,l̥}
ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
ə → a / _#
ə → ∅ / #_
i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
v → ft / _s
F[+voice] → F[-voice] / adjacent to {S,ts}
F[+voice] → S / l̥_
t → s / _{k,q}
i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
ə → i / {u,a}_ (though aə seems to have become i in some circumstances)
v → ∅ / u[+short]_V[+short]
v → ∅ / V[+short]_u[+short]
u → ∅ / #_vV
iv → j / #_u
dʒ → ∅ / i_i
ə → ∅ / _dʒ{a,u} except in #U
a → ∅ / _dʒa (except in #U?)
s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
in → dʒ / _u (possibly only word-initially?)
Proto-Tabla-Sentani is reconstructed by Gregerson and Hartzler (1987) as having had the following phonology:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||
| Plosive | p b | t d | k | |
| Approximant | j | w |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | e | ə | o |
| Open | a |
(From Gregerson, Kenneth, and Margaret Hartzler (1987), “Towards a Reconstruction of Proto-Tabla-Sentani Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 26, No. 1/2 (Summer – Winter, 1987), 1 – 29.)
Pogostick Man, from Gregerson, Kenneth, and Margaret Hartzler (1987), “Towards a Reconstruction of Proto-Tabla-Sentani Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 26, No. 1/2 (Summer – Winter, 1987), 1 – 29.
p k → b ɡ / V_V
p t → f {s,h} / #_
N → ŋ / _#
e → i / _(C)i
e → æ / {P,K}_
e → æ / _P
e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
ə → o / _(C)o
ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
ə → æ / ! _{B,K,H}
a → æ / _(C)e
a → æ / i(C)_
o → e (sporadic, highly unusual)
Pogostick Man, from Gregerson, Kenneth, and Margaret Hartzler (1987), “Towards a Reconstruction of Proto-Tabla-Sentani Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 26, No. 1/2 (Summer – Winter, 1987), 1 – 29.
p k → b ɡ / V_V
p b t → f p {s,h} / #_
d → l / medially
N → m / _#
e → i / _(C)i
e → æ / {P,K}_
e → æ / _P
e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
ə → o / _(C)o
ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
ə → æ / ! _{B,K,H}
a → æ / _(C)e
a → æ / i(C)_
o → e (sporadic, highly unusual)
Pogostick Man, from Gregerson, Kenneth, and Margaret Hartzler (1987), “Towards a Reconstruction of Proto-Tabla-Sentani Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 26, No. 1/2 (Summer – Winter, 1987), 1 – 29.
p k → b ɡ / V_V
p t → f {s,h} / #_
d → l / medially
N → m / _#
e → i / _(C)i
e → æ / {P,K}_
e → æ / _P
e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
ə → o / _(C)o
ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
ə → æ / ! _{B,K,H}
a → æ / _(C)e
a → æ / i(C)_
o → e (sporadic, highly unusual)
Pogostick Man, from Gregerson, Kenneth, and Margaret Hartzler (1987), “Towards a Reconstruction of Proto-Tabla-Sentani Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 26, No. 1/2 (Summer – Winter, 1987), 1 – 29.
p k → b ɡ / V_V
s → t / #_
N → ŋ / _#
e → i / _(C)i
e → æ / {P,K}_
e → æ / _P
e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
ə → o / _(C)o
ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
ə → æ / ! _{B,K,H}
a → æ / _(C)e
a → æ / i(C)_
o → e (sporadic, highly unusual)
Pogostick Man, from Gregerson, Kenneth, and Margaret Hartzler (1987), “Towards a Reconstruction of Proto-Tabla-Sentani Phonology”. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 26, No. 1/2 (Summer – Winter, 1987), 1 – 29.
d → r / medially
N → ŋ / _#
i → ∅ / V_ (with a few exceptions)
Some allophony triggered where p~ɸ, and probably some others
e → ə / unstressed (possibly only in disyllables?)
oi → oe
Some vowel assimilations, mostly dealing with central vowels
o → e (sporadic, highly unusual)
Wikipedia gives the following phonological reconstruction for Proto-Indo-European, reproduced here with some slight adjustments for presentation’s sake:
| Labial | Coronal | Palatovelar | Plain Velar | Labiovelar | Laryngeal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||||
| Plosive | p b bʱ | t d dʱ | ḱ ɡ́ ɡ́ʱ | k ɡ ɡʱ | kʷ ɡʷ ɡʷʱ | |
| Fricative | s | h1 h2 h3 | ||||
| Approximant | ɹ | j | w | |||
| Lat. Approx. | l | |||||
There is some debate as to whether the voiced and voiced aspirate stops were actually glottalized and plain voiced, respectively; the status of the palatovelars, plain velars, and labiovelars as possible plain velar, uvular, and labialized uvular consonants, or as to whether the labiovelars existed at all, are also subjects of much contention.
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Mid | e eː | o oː | |
| Back | (a) (aː) | ||
It is noted in the source that the nasals, approximants, and potentially laryngeals could also act as vowels; such allophones of /j w/ would then be [i u]. There is some debate over the presence of /a aː/ in the language, although the Wikipedia does mention that if Stang’s law holds, /aː/ at least must have been phonemic.
The accentual system was apparently a sort of free pitch accent, heavily related to ablaut and the vestiges of which may be best seen in Vedic Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Lithuanian and some West South Slavic tongues.
(From Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Pitch accent”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pitch_accent&oldid=451210103>; and Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Proto-Indo-European language”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&oldid=455124616>)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Albanian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_language&oldid=582390175>
d dʱ → ð / V_V
d dʱ → ð / r_
ḱ → s / _{u̯,u,i̯,i}
ḱ → k / _R
ḱ → {ts,tʃ} (“[a]rchaic relic”)
ḱ → θ
kʷ → s / _”E?
kʷ → c / _B?
kʷ → k / else?
ɡ́(ʱ) → d / %_C[+sibilant]
ɡʷ(ʱ) → {ɡ,z}
bʱ dʱ ɡ́(ʱ) → b d dh
s → ɟ / #_
s → ʃ / V{i̯,u̯,r,k}_V
sd → θ / medial
sḱ → h / medial
sp → f / medial
st → ʃt / medial
s → θ / sometimes, involving “[d]issimilation with following vowel”
s → h / V_V
i̯ → ɟ / {a,e,i}_
i̯ → j / _B
i̯ → ∅ / E_
i̯ → h / V_
u̯ → v
Vn → V[+nasal] / _C?
n → ɲ (sometimes?)
l r → l(ː) r(ː)
{m̩,n̩} l̩ r̩ → e uj {ri,ir}
Loss of laryngeals, with the possible exception of h4, if it existed; h3 and h4 seem to have possibly fronted a following back vowel
eː iː oː uː → o i e {y,i}
a e i o → {a,e} (j)e {e,i} a
Gheg seems to have maintained or innovated vowel length whereas Tosk has not
ə → ∅ / _#
c ɟ → tʃ dʒ (for most speakers)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Albanian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_language&oldid=582390175>
d dʱ → ð / V_V
d dʱ → ð / r_
ḱ → s / _{u̯,u,i̯,i}
ḱ → k / _R
ḱ → {ts,tʃ} (“[a]rchaic relic”)
ḱ → θ
kʷ → s / _”E?
kʷ → c / _B?
kʷ → k / else?
ɡ́(ʱ) → d / %_C[+sibilant]
ɡʷ(ʱ) → {ɡ,z}
bʱ dʱ ɡ́(ʱ) → b d dh
s → ɟ / #_
s → ʃ / V{i̯,u̯,r,k}_V
sd → θ / medial
sḱ → h / medial
sp → f / medial
st → ʃt / medial
s → θ / sometimes, involving “[d]issimilation with following vowel”
s → h / V_V
i̯ → ɟ / {a,e,i}_
i̯ → j / _B
i̯ → ∅ / E_
i̯ → h / V_
u̯ → v
n → ∅ / V_C?
n → ɲ (sometimes?)
n → ɾ
l r → {l,ɫ} {ɾ,r}
{m̩,n̩} l̩ r̩ → e uj {ri,ir}
Loss of laryngeals, with the possible exception of h4, if it existed; h3 and h4 seem to have possibly fronted a following back vowel
eː iː oː uː → o i e {y,i}
a e i o → {a,e} (j)e {e,i} a
c ɟ → tʃ dʒ (much less widespread than in Gheg)
Alces, from http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/anathistphon.pdf (link is dead)
eh2 → æː / “tautosyllabic”
ei eu → ɛː uː
Dʱ → D
H → R / VR_V
h1 → ∅
h3 → ∅ / “medially”
T h2 → D h3 / _#
T h2 → D h3 / V[-stress]_V[-stress]
T h2 → D h3 / ”Vː
T h2 → D h3 / ”W
t → z / j “(allophonic)”
r → ∅ / #_ (unclear)
j → ∅ / #_e (not widely attested)
{{h1,h3}s,s{h1,h3}} → sː (contested)
Alces, from http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/anathistphon.pdf (link is dead)
D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
T D → T[+fortis] T[+lenis]
h2 h3 → hh h
Ḱ → K
V → Vː / in ”U[+open]
e o → eː oː / in ”U[+stress]
o(ː) æː → a(ː) eː
e → i / _{m,ŋ} when posttonic in U[+closed] or when pretonic
e → a / _n in U[+open +posttonic]
e → a / _{r,l} (sporadic)
t → ts / _i ! s_
d → s / #_{i,j}
w → m / _u
w → m / u_
j → ∅ / V_V
aj aw → ɛː uː / !_{s,n,r,l}
Alces, from http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/anathistphon.pdf (link is dead)
D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
T D → T[+fortis] T[+lenis]
h2 h3 → hh h
ḱː → z
kʷ → w
{ḱ,k} → j / _e(ː)
{ḱ,k} → ∅ / _i(ː)
k → ∅ / V_V
k → ∅ / _N
ɡ → dʒ (sporadic)
e → i / j_
e → a
V → Vː / in ”U[+open]
V → Vː / in #”U
o(ː) → a(ː)
{d,l} → r “in Hieroglyphic Luwian, occasionally”
j → ∅ / z_
hh h → h ∅ / ”Vː_u
hh h → h ∅ / u_”Vː
h → ∅ / _w ! at word boundaries
hh → ∅ / _{w,m,n,r,l} “medially, and sporadically”
D R → Dː Rː / ”e_ in U[+open]
{ɛ,e}ː æː → iː aː
Alces, from http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/anathistphon.pdf (link is dead)
D → T / #_
D → F[+voice]
N{F[+voice],T} → nD
d → k / _w
kʷ → t / _E
kʷ → k / _E, in Milyan
{ɡ́,ɡ} → j / _e(ː)
{ɡ́,ɡ} → ∅ / _i(ː)
ɡ → ∅ / V_V
j → ∅ / ts_
s → z / _{R,j,w} “(in Milyan, this happened after the change of ḱ to s)”
s → h
ḱ → s
h3 → ɡ / _B
h2 → k / E_E (probably a palatal stop)
h2 → q / _E (possibly plain velar stop)
h2 → x / else (possibly a uvular stop)
w → b / C_
ɡ → dʒ (sporadic)
e → i / j_
{ɛ,e}ː o æː → iː e aː
Vː → V[-long]
e → a / _U[+u,a]
a → e / _U[+e,i]
“[P]lus lots of syncope which he doesn’t elaborate on”
Alces, from http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/anathistphon.pdf (link is dead)
d → tʃ / _{i,u}
d → t / {#,N}_
p d D → f ð T
T → D / N_
Ḱ → K
Kʷ → K / _V[+round]
ʃ → s
s → ʃ / _{i,e}
s → ʃ / i_
{h2,h3} → ∅
{m,n} → ʋ / _# “(that’s a Greek nu, I’m not sure what it’s supposed to represent)”
l → ʎ / _{i,j}
w (→ v?) → f / s_
j → ∅ / C_
j u → ð w / #_
j → ð / V_V
e → i / j_
{e,a,o} → ē / _N in ”U[+closed]
{e,a,o} → ā / _N in ”U[+open]
{e,o} → a / in U[-stress]
n → ∅ / _P “(leaves nasalization on the previous vowel)”
o(ː) eː æː → a(ː) iː aː
Vː → V[-long]
“[P]lus lots of syncope which he doesn’t elaborate on”
Alces, from http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/anathistphon.pdf (link is dead)
D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
T D → T[+fortis] T[+lenis]
h2 h3 → hh h
Ḱ → K
V → Vː / ”U[+open]
e → i / pretonic
e → a / posttonic in U[+open]
o(ː) → a(ː)
a e → aː eː / in ”U[+closed]
æː → eː
ɡʷ → hʷ / medially
hhy → “something like /ʒ/”
h → ∅ / ”Vː_u
h → ∅ / u_”Vː
w → j / “in *díwots > Tiyaz ‘sun-god’; conditioning unknown”
ɛː → iː
Mecislau & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Armenian Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=582063933>
NB: The changes in plosives are the most contentious; the Wikipedia article gives differences between the seven dialects in initial position for only the alveolar series by way of comparison, so take plosive changes with a huge grain of salt.
{e,i}ː {u,o}ː → i u
{e,o}j ɛw → ɛj ow
{e,o} → a (rare)
aː → a
e → ɛ
ɛ o → i u / _N
ej ia → e ɛa
{i,u} → ə / in some unstressed syllables
e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_
kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
ɡ́ → ts (?)
b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → p t j k / #_
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
j → w / _o
j → ?
{sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
{sr,rs} → rː
r → rː / _N
l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
l → ɫ / V_V
Ns sN → s N
N → w / S_S
VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
N → n / _#, in monosyllables
N̩ → n / _#
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar aɫ
V → (?) / _(C)#
Mecislau & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Armenian Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=582063933>
NB: The changes in plosives are the most contentious; the Wikipedia article gives differences between the seven dialects in initial position for only the alveolar series by way of comparison, so take plosive changes with a huge grain of salt.
{e,i}ː {u,o}ː → i u
{e,o}j ɛw → ɛj ow
{e,o} → a (rare)
aː → a
e → ɛ
ɛ o → i u / _N
ej ia → e ɛa
{i,u} → ə / in some unstressed syllables
e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_
kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
ɡ́ → ts (?)
b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
ɡʷʱ → ɡʱ / #_
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
j → w / _o
j → ?
{sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
{sr,rs} → rː
r → rː / _N
l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
l → ɫ / V_V
Ns sN → s N
N → w / S_S
VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
N → n / _#, in monosyllables
N̩ → n / _#
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar aɫ
V → (?) / _(C)#
Mecislau & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Armenian Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=582063933>
NB: The changes in plosives are the most contentious; the Wikipedia article gives differences between the seven dialects in initial position for only the alveolar series by way of comparison, so take plosive changes with a huge grain of salt.
{e,i}ː {u,o}ː → i u
{e,o}j ɛw → ɛj ow
{e,o} → a (rare)
aː → a
e → ɛ
ɛ o → i u / _N
ej ia → e ɛa
{i,u} → ə / in some unstressed syllables
e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_ ! #_
kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
ɡ́ → ts (?)
b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → b j k / #_
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
j → w / _o
j → ?
{sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
{sr,rs} → rː
r → rː / _N
l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
l → ɫ / V_V
Ns sN → s N
N → w / S_S
VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
N → n / _#, in monosyllables
N̩ → n / _#
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar aɫ
V → (?) / _(C)#
Mecislau & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Armenian Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=582063933>
NB: The changes in plosives are the most contentious; the Wikipedia article gives differences between the seven dialects in initial position for only the alveolar series by way of comparison, so take plosive changes with a huge grain of salt.
{e,i}ː {u,o}ː → i u
{e,o}j ɛw → ɛj ow
{e,o} → a (rare)
aː → a
e → ɛ
ɛ o → i u / _N
ej ia → e ɛa
{i,u} → ə / in some unstressed syllables
e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_
kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
ɡ́ → ts (?)
b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
j → w / _o
j → ?
{sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
{sr,rs} → rː
r → rː / _N
l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
l → ɫ / V_V
Ns sN → s N
N → w / S_S
VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
N → n / _#, in monosyllables
N̩ → n / _#
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar aɫ
V → (?) / _(C)#
Mecislau & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Armenian Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=582063933>
NB: The changes in plosives are the most contentious; the Wikipedia article gives differences between the seven dialects in initial position for only the alveolar series by way of comparison, so take plosive changes with a huge grain of salt.
{e,i}ː {u,o}ː → i u
{e,o}j ɛw → ɛj ow
{e,o} → a (rare)
aː → a
e → ɛ
ɛ o → i u / _N
ej ia → e ɛa
{i,u} → ə / in some unstressed syllables
e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_
kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
ɡ́ → ts (?)
b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ / ! _#
j → w / _o
j → ?
{sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
{sr,rs} → rː
r → rː / _N
l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
l → ɫ / V_V
Ns sN → s N
N → w / S_S
VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
N → n / _#, in monosyllables
N̩ → n / _#
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar aɫ
V → (?) / _(C)#
Mecislau & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Armenian Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=582063933>
NB: The changes in plosives are the most contentious; the Wikipedia article gives differences between the seven dialects in initial position for only the alveolar series by way of comparison, so take plosive changes with a huge grain of salt.
{e,i}ː {u,o}ː → i u
{e,o}j ɛw → ɛj ow
{e,o} → a (rare)
aː → a
e → ɛ
ɛ o → i u / _N
ej ia → e ɛa
{i,u} → ə / in some unstressed syllables
e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_
kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
ɡ́ → ts (?)
b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
j → w / _o
j → ?
{sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
{sr,rs} → rː
r → rː / _N
l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
l → ɫ / V_V
Ns sN → s N
N → w / S_S
VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
N → n / _#, in monosyllables
N̩ → n / _#
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar aɫ
V → (?) / _(C)#
Mecislau & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Armenian Language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=582063933>
NB: The changes in plosives are the most contentious; the Wikipedia article gives differences between the seven dialects in initial position for only the alveolar series by way of comparison, so take plosive changes with a huge grain of salt.
{e,i}ː {u,o}ː → i u
{e,o}j ɛw → ɛj ow
{e,o} → a (rare)
aː → a
e → ɛ
ɛ o → i u / _N
ej ia → e ɛa
{i,u} → ə / in some unstressed syllables
e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_
kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
ɡ́ → ts (?)
b d ɡ(ʷ) → p t k
ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ
j → w / _o
j → ?
{sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
{sr,rs} → rː
r → rː / _N
l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
l → ɫ / V_V
Ns sN → s N
N → w / S_S
VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
N → n / _#, in monosyllables
N̩ → n / _#
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar aɫ
V → (?) / _(C)#
Pogostick Man, Alex Fink, and Tropylium, the former two citing Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Indo-Iranian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-Iranian_language&oldid=543625693>; and Alex Fink citing https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avestan_phonology
NB: Tropylium wishes to note that his sound changes are subject to change.
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ → b d z
ḱ ɡ́ → s z
k(ʷ) ɡ(ʷ)(ʱ) → tʃ dʒ / _E
k kʷ ɡ(ʷ)(ʱ) → x k ɡ / else
rt → š (Alex Fink says that the realization of /š/ “is unclear”)
s → {s,h}
u̯ → v
l → r
{n̩,m̩} → a
{l̩,r̩} → ər(ə(r))
e eː → a aː
o oː → {a,aː} aː
h(j) → ŋh / a_a
hw → ŋʷh / a_a
h → ŋ / a_ra
hx → ∅
dhokarena56, from Matasović (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (ed. Lubotsky).
“PIE Dialectal”
— h1e h2e h3e → e a o
— eh1 eh2 eh3 → eː aː oː
— H → a / C_C ! #_
— SS → sː
— ∅ → a / CR_HC
— H → ∅ / V_C when pretonic
— H → a / #R_C
— Ḱ → K
Early Proto-Celtic
— ɡʷ → b
— h → ∅ / C_
— ∅ → i / C{l,r}S
— e → a / _Ra (short a only), though “[t]he e was often restored by analogy”
— ∅ → a / C_RC
— H → ∅ / “if not in a syllabic position”
— p…kʷ → kʷ…kʷ
— eː → iː
— oː → uː / in U#
— Vː → V[-long] / _RC
— C1C2 → xC2 / if C2 was a plosive or s
— p → b / _{r,l}
Late Proto-Celtic
— p → w / B_N
— p → f
— oː ej → aː eː
— e → o / _w
— u → o / _wO
dhokarena56
“Laryngeal rules (the ones common to all branches except Anatolian)”
Kʷ → K
“The PIE rules for the voicing of s → z, as in [nizdos] for *nisdos, are assumed to apply”
Cʱ → C
eː → iː / ! _{i,u}
Obstruent clusters assimilate in voicing to that of the final obstruent
tː → sː
p → f / {V,#}_
f → x / _O
f → ∅ / else
r̩ l̩ → {ri,ra} {li,la} / _{S,R} (which vowel crops up is unpredictable)
r̩ l̩ → {ra,ar} {la,al} / _{s,CC,V,#} (the results are unpredictable)
m̩ n̩ → am an / _{s,({m,j,w)V}
m̩ n̩ → em en / else
Stress change:
— Pronouns, articles, and conjunctions become unstressed.
— First syllables stress in all verbal imperatives.
— First syllables stress in all other parts of speech except preverbs and the exceptions noted above.
— Second syllables receive stress otherwise.
— “This, unlike the preceding rules, remained a morphologically conditioned rule in Old Irish.”
ɡʷ → b / #_V ! _u(ː)
ɡʷ → b / #_N
ɡʷ → b / C_V
ɡʷ → ɡ
p t k kʷ b d ɡ m n l r s → f θ x xʷ v ð ɣ M N L R h / V(#)_{R,V} (“We don’t know the exact values of lenited /m n l r/. We can guess that lenited m became a nasalized labial continuant of some sort, but beyond that, we don’t know.”)
k → x / V_t
m → n / V_#; “[i]t is thought that the vowel needs to be unstressed, but this is not certain”
Vː → V / _N#; “[i]t is thought that the long vowel probably needed to be unstressed- again, this is uncertain”
p t k kʷ b d ɡ ∅ → b d ɡ ɡʷ mb nd ŋɡ n / n#_”V
oː → uː / _(C…)#
oːi → uː / _#
oː → aː / else
Vː → V[-long] / _H (includes diphthongs)
“The following three rules only apply if the vowel is unstressed”:
— e → i / _(C…)#
— o → a / _{(C…),u}#
— {ai,oi} → iː / _#
“The following two rules apply if the vowel in question is stressed or follows the stressed syllable”; consonant clusters cannot be /nt nd/:
— i u → e o / _C(…C){a(ː),e(ː),o(ː)}
— e o → i u / _C(…C){H,j}
C → Cʲ / _{F,j}
C → Cʷ / _{B,w}
Kʷ → K
For the following: “The book says nothing about length in the input vowels, but I think they could be either short or long from the examples given.”
— n → ∅ / {i,o,u}_{p,t,k,s}
— {a,e}n → eː / _{p t k s}
w → f / #_
w → ∅ / {#,C}C_
w → ∅ / {θ,x}_
w → ∅ / V_{V,#}
w → v / else
“The following changes. . .are, quoth the book, ‘somewhat approximative’”:
— {p,t} → ∅ / #s_r
— {p,t} → ∅ / #s_ “(although it says that occasionally st > t / #_)”
— s → ∅ / [anything]{l,r}_O
— hn hm → nː mː / [anything]_ (“[t]his change is a bit speculative”)
— “[A] sequence of two plosives becomes a geminate of the second one”
— st zd → sː dː / [anything]_
— {l,h}l {l,h}r l{p,s,n} r{p,s} ln → lː rː lː rː (lː?) / [anything]_
— Cː → C[-long]
V → ∅ / C_# when unstressed ! C = j
C(…C) → ∅ / _# ! /l r/ and clusters containing them; “[t]his remained a phonologically conditioned rule in OIr”
{au,eu,ou} → oː
ei → eː
oː → ua / _[anything], when stressed
eː → ia / _{#,Cʲ} when stressed; “ai and oi remain, but are written as <ae ai oe oi> seemingly randomly”
j → ∅
The second and third rule below “may well have been for the most part optional”; every one of the three “only applies to unstressed vowels” and “remained as a phonologically conditioned rule”:
— Vː → V[-long]
— a → e / _#
— {e,o} → a / _[anything]
V → Vː / _#, when stressed; “[t]his remained as a phonologically conditioned rule in OIr”
VOR → VːR; “this is a tad unclear, because in some instances it didn’t seem to apply”
V → ∅ / #UU(_)U(U(_)U) / unstressed; this “remained as a phonologically conditioned rule in OIr”; “[t]hat’s a little unclear, so let me try and enumerate: in words of more than three syllables, every other vowel (only the even ones) dropped, if it’s unstressed. In some words, syncope didn’t apply because it would create an unwieldy consonant cluster: so PIE *komaktyom → OIr cumachte, not *cumchte”
Dewrad & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Willis (David), “Old and Middle Welsh”
kʷ → p
Vː → V / _#
ei → eː
st → sː (with some exceptions)
ai → ɛ
s → ∅ / V_V
V → ə / _(C)#, also in proclitics
s → ∅ / x_
{au,eu,ou} → ∅
uː {oi,ɔː} → yː uː
j → ð / V_
i u → e o / _Ca
yː → ɨ
p t k {b,m} d ɡ → b d ɡ v ð ɣ / _V
aː → ɔː
a o → ei {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
a → {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
V → ɨ / _(C…)j(C…)#
{a,o} → e / _(C…)i(ː)
{a,e,o} → ei / _(C…)j
V → ∅ / _#
mb nd ŋɡ → mː nː ŋː
e → i / _N
$ → h / V_ (what $ is is unclear)
V → ∅ / _[+intertonic]
pː tː kː → f θ x
p t k → f θ x / {r,l}_
ɣ → i / _C
xt → iθ
ɣ → i / C_V
ɛː → ui
ɔː → au / when stressed
l → ɬ / _t
w → ɡw / #_
mp nt ŋk → m̥ n̥ ŋ̊
ɔ → ə / #_sC
l r → ɬ r̥ / #_
ɣ → ə / _#
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Dacian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dacian_language&oldid=582406161>
o → a
e → je / in open syllables, when stressed
e → ja / in closed syllables, when stressed
eː → aː
oi wo wj ow → ai wa vi aw
ei → {ei,i} (“PIE *ei evolution is not well reconstructed yet”)
bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → b d ɡ́ ɡ ɡʷ
ḱ ɡ́ → ts dz
{kʷ,kw} {ɡʷ,ɡw} → tʃ dʒ (→ s~z z ?) / _E
{kʷ,kw} {ɡʷ,ɡw} → k ɡ / else
Siride
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → β ð ɣ
b d ɡ → p t k
p t k → f θ x
f θ s x → β ð z ɣ “(Except initially or following IE stress)”
{i,j} {u,w} → j w / V[+short]C_
{i,j} {u,w} → ij uw
aː → oː
e → i
eː → æː
o → a
ei oi → iː ai
eːi {oːi,aːi} → eː oː (?)
eu ou → iu au
Pogostick Man, from Wright, Joseph (1910). Grammar of the Gothic Language, 2nd Ed.; and Wikipedia contributors (2014). “Gothic language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gothic_language&oldid=635946920>
NB: Wright seems to regard Germanic labiovelars as sequences of velar + w if I’m reading this right; additionally, it looks like some of what Wright considers diphthongs may have been long monophthongs.
Stressed vowels:
— o e → u i
— u → ɔ / _{r,h} (unless this r “arose from older s by assimilation”)
— i → ɛ / _{r,h,ʍ}
— æː → eː
— ew → iw
Unstressed vowels:
— V[- long] → ∅ / _# ! V = u
— V[- long] → ∅ / U_C# ! V = u
— Inherited “long final vowels…became shortened in polysyllabic words, when the vowels in question originally had the ‘broken’ accent, but remained unshortened when they originally had the ‘slurred’ accent”
— aj → a / U_#
— “Originally long diphthongs became shortened in final syllables”
iw → ju / [- stress]
w → u̯ / V[- long]_{#,C}
w → ∅ / oː_j
oːw æːj → ɔː ɛː / _V
j → i / C_# “after the loss of a final vowel or syllable”
ij → iː / _s “after the loss of a vowel in final syllables”
ij → i / _# “after the loss of a final vowel or syllable”
Vw → u / _s (to wit, the vowel is deleted and the *w syllabifies)
“In a few instances medial -w- (or -ww- the origin of which is uncertain) after short vowels became -ggw- in Gothic…”; similarly, medial *-j(j)- became -ddj- in uncertain conditions
iji → iː / U[- stress](C…)_
iji → iː / U[+ long + closed]_ in the stem
i → ∅ / _ji
m → β / C[- voiced]_n, when medial
m → ɸ / C[+ voiced]_n, when medial
nː → n / _C ! _j
β → b / {r,l}_
ð → d / C[+ voiced]_
β ð ɣ → ɸ θ x / V_(s)#
“The final -h [= /h/?] in unaccented particles was often assimilated to the initial consonant of the following word”
ɣ → ɡ / #_
ɣ → ɡ / C_V
“In the forms of the strong verbs, medial z was supplanted by s through the levelling out of the s-forms…z was also supplanted by s in several weak verbs, which in some cases was due to the influence of the corresponding strong verbs”
z → s / _#, though “[t]his s was dropped when it came to stand after an original s through the loss of a vowel”, though it “remained when protected by a particle”
s → ∅ / V[- long]r_#
s → r / in “[t]he prep[osition]. us…before r in compounds”
s → ∅ / in “[t]he prep[osition]. us…in compounds before st”, though this seems to have been less common
Siride
β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / {#,”V}_
z → {r,∅}
C → Cː / _j ! C = r
i u → e o / _%{a,o}
oː → uː / _#
Siride? & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Anglo-Frisian languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Frisian_languages&oldid=602286013>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Old Frisian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Frisian&oldid=559739599>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Old English phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_English_phonology&oldid=602537992>
a → ɑ̃ / _N (short only)
VN → Ṽː / _F
a → æː / short only, includes diphthongs ! B or *ã in next syllable
k ɡ → tʃ j(?)
æː → aː “under to [sic] the influence of neighboring consonants”, but the article doesn’t elaborate
æː → eː
æu → au (æ → a / _B in general?)
aː → æː / ! _N or if nasalized
i o → e a / unstressed
ai au eu → {eː,aː} aː ia
ia iu → jaː juː
a → æ / ! _N or if nasalized, or if *B or *ã in next syllable
h → ∅ / V_V
{i,u} → ∅ / -# ! VC_
θ resists change to d until the 14th Century
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Phonological history of English”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English&oldid=453796112>
ɑ̃ː → õː
V[+nas] → V[-nas]
{i,u} → ∅/ _# ! V[-long]C_#
k ɣ ɡ → tʃ ʝ dʒ / “in certain complex circumstances”
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Samuel (1919), Historical Outlines of English Phonology and Midd le English Grammar for Courses in Chaucer, Middle English, and the History of the English Language; and Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Middle English phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_English_phonology&oldid=456896605>
Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
eɑ eːɑ eo eːo → ɑ ɛː e eː
æj → aj → ej
{æːj,e(ː)j} → ej
ɑɣ → ɑw
{eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
eːɑw iːw → ew ju
{ɑːw,ɑːɣ,oːw} → ɔːw
oɣ → ɔːw / _V
{o(ː)ht,ɑːht} → ow
ɑː y(ː) → ɔː e(ː)
ɑ e o → ɑː ɛː oː / in U[+open] ! in #U with the following U containing /iː/ or ending in one of /m n r l/
eːɑ eːo iːe become sounds of uncertain identity; Moore says they were probably diphthongs
Vː → V[-long] / in #U before a U with /iː/
m → n → ∅ / _# when unstressed
hn {wl,hl} hr → w l r
ɣ → ɡ / #_
ɣ → w / C_V
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Samuel (1919), Historical Outlines of English Phonology and Midd le English Grammar for Courses in Chaucer, Middle English, and the History of the English Language; and Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Middle English phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_English_phonology&oldid=456896605>
Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
eɑ eːɑ eo eːo → ɑ ɛː e eː
æj → aj → ej
{æːj,e(ː)j} → ej
ɑɣ → ɑw
{eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
eːɑw iːw → ew ju
{ɑːw,ɑːɣ,oːw} → ɔːw
oɣ → ɔːw / _V
{ɑːht,o(ː)ht} → ow
ɑː y(ː) → ɔː i(ː)
ɑ e o → ɑː ɛː oː / in U[+open] ! in #U with the following U containing /iː/ or ending in one of /m n r l/
Vː → V[-long] / in #U before a U with /iː/
m → n → ∅ / _# when unstressed
hn {wl,hl} hr → w l r
ɣ → ɡ / #_
ɣ → w / C_V
{e,ɑ,o} → ə → ∅ / _#
Pogostick Man, from FireSpeakerWiki contributors (2013), “English sound changes”. FireSpeakerWiki. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/English_sound_changes>
ʊ → ɤ ! P_ and _l
mb ŋɡ → m ŋ / _#
tj sj dj zj → tʃ ʃ dʒ ʒ / ! _uː (perhaps only before stressed uː?)
a ɑ {ɛ,ɪ,ɤ} → ɑː ɔː ɜː / _ɹ{C,#}
ɑʊ → ɑː / _P
ɑʊ → ɑː / _N (sometimes)
ɑʊ → ɔː / else
“[A] large number of cases that were ɑː have become ɔː subsequently for non-phonetic reasons, like laundry”
a → ɑː / “in a few words, like ‘father’”
a → æ / else
əɪ əʊ → ɑi æʊ / “in some parts of South-Eastern England”
əɪ əʊ → aɪ aʊ / “in most of Britain”
eː oː → eɪ oʊ / ! _ɹ
Pogostick Man, from FireSpeakerWiki contributors (2013), “English sound changes”. FireSpeakerWiki. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/English_sound_changes; and my Phonetic Description class>
æ → æː (e.g., NYC) or ɑː (e.g., Boston) / _{F[-voiced],N[-voiced]} (“words which change vary between dialects”)
ɒ → ɒː → ɔː / _F[-voiced]
æː ɑː ɔː → æə~eə ɑ ɔ
ʍ → w (regional)
l → ɫ / “in some conditions”
ɪ → i / _# when unstressed
{t,d} → ɾ / V_V[-stress]
i u e → ɪ ʊ ɛ / _ɹ
o ɔ → ɔ ɒ / _ɹ (most dialects have at least one if not both)
æ → ɛ / _ɹ
j → ∅ / {θ,s,z,l,n,t,d}_ when in onset position
ɒ → ɔ / _K “(partial)”
æ → ɛə / _{n,m} “and others depending on dialect”
eə → eː
iə → ɪ (ongoing)
w → ∅ / C_ɹ for some C (toward(s), quart(er), sword)
t → ∅ / f_n̩
Stuff regarding syllabification (e.g., of /ɹ/) and hiatus
Loss of pretonic /ə/ in #U (ongoing)
Pogostick Man, from FireSpeakerWiki contributors (2013), “English sound changes”. FireSpeakerWiki. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/English_sound_changes>; and my Phonetic Description class
ɜːɹ ɑːɹ ɔːɹ eːɹ oːɹ iːɹ uːɹ → ɜː ɑː ɔː ɛə ɔə ɪə ʊə / syllable-finally
ɑ → ɒ
æ → æː → ɑː / _{F[-voiced],N[-voiced]}
ɒ → ɒː → ɔː / _F[-voiced]
ʍ → w
l → ɫ (the conditions of this are not elaborated upon)
oʊ iː → ɔʊ ɪə / _ɫ
oʊ iː → əʊ ɪi / else
uː → ʊə → uː / _ɫ ! in Queensland and New South Wales
uː → ʊʉ → ʉː / else
ɫ → əɫ / ! if one of the above vowel changes after the formation of /ɫ/ apply
ɪ → iː / _# when unstressed
ɪ → iː / “unstressed foot-finally if the next syllable is stressed and begins with /k ɡ tʃ dʒ ʃ ʒ/”
ɪ → ə / unstressed
ə → ɪ / _{k,ɡ,tʃ,dʒ,ʃ,ʒ,v}
t d → ɾ / V_V[-stress]
ɔə → ɔː
ɛə ʊə → ɛː ɔː (ongoing)
ʊə → oː / ! {j,dʒ}_
ʊə → ʉːwə / “almost always otherwise, but see [above vowel changes after /ɫ/ is formed]”
oə → oː
j → ∅ / %{θ,s,z,l}_”V
sj zj lj → ʃ ʒ j~ɫj / else “(j~ɫj fluctuation is formality)”
ɫj → ɫi / “after any segment after which coda-/ɫ/ is forbidden, e.g. failure [fæiɫiɐ]”
tj dj → tʃ dʒ
ɔː → ɔ / _ɹV[-stress]
ɔː → ɔ / _F[-voiced]
ɔ → ɔː / “in ‘gone’ and some derivatives”
æ → æː / _{n,m,ɡ,ɫ% ! _n,m,ɡ,ɫ}%{j,w} or a form of a strong verb
æ → æː / _d (rare) ! form of a strong verb
Pogostick Man, from FireSpeakerWiki contributors (2013), “English sound changes”. FireSpeakerWiki. <http://wiki.firespeaker.org/English_sound_changes>
ɜːɹ ɑːɹ ɔːɹ eːɹ oːɹ iːɹ uːɹ → ɜː ɑː ɔː ɛə ɔə ɪə ʊə / syllable-finally
ɑ → ɒ
æ → æː → ɑː / _{F[-voiced],N[-voiced]}
ɒ → ɒː → ɔː / _F[-voiced]
ʍ → w
l → ɫ / “in coda”
oʊ → əʊ
“LOT-CLOTH split reversed properly”
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Samuel (1919), Historical Outlines of English Phonology and Midd le English Grammar for Courses in Chaucer, Middle English, and the History of the English Language; and Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Middle English phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_English_phonology&oldid=456896605>
Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
eɑ eːɑ eo eːo → ɑ ɛː e eː
æj → aj → ej
{æːj,e(ː)j} → ej
ɑɣ → ɑw
{eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
eːɑw iːw → ew ju
{ɑːw,ɑːɣ,oːw} → ɔːw
oɣ → ɔːw / _V
{ɑːht,o(ː)ht} → ow
ɑː most likely became one of {eː,ɛː}
ɑ e o → ɑː ɛː oː / in U[+open] ! in #U with the following U containing /iː/ or ending in one of /m n r l/
y(ː) → i(ː)
Vː → V[-long] / in #U before a U with /iː/
n → ∅ / _# when unstressed (not clear as to whether m → n beforehand in this position or not)
j tʃ → ɡ k
ʃ → s / in unstressed syllables
ʍ became a sound spelled 〈qu〉
hn {wl,hl} hr → w l r
ɣ → ɡ / #_
ɣ → w / C_V
{e,ɑ,o} → ə → ∅ / _#, when unstressed (it appears this sound may also have gone to /ɪ/)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Phonological history of Scots”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_Scots&oldid=582962563>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Scottish Vowel Length Rule”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_vowel_length_rule&oldid=589349104>
b → ∅ / m_l
t → ∅ / {p,k}_# (“except in some inflected forms” for *kt)
d → ∅ / n_
d → ∅ / l_#
s → ʃ / _E (E_ also?)
f → ∅ “in certain contexts”
/k ɡ/ remain unpalatalized when E_
{ɸ,x} → ∅ / _# (seems to be sporadic)
ʍ → xw (some speakers seem to have resisted this)
oɡ → ʌu
ul became some sort of diphthong or vowel (possibly one of uː, uw, ʌw), but the article isn’t very clear
ol al → ou ɑː → ʌu {ɑ,ɔ}
Vowel shift:
— ai → ɛi → əi / when stem-final
— uː → ʌu / when-stem final, in northern varieties
— øː → wi / {k,ɡ}_ (in Mid Northern dialects)
— øː → i (in northern dialects)
— øː → (j){u,ʌ} / _{k,x} (outcome varies depending upon dialect)
— a → i / _n (in northern varieties)
— a → e / _n (otherwise)
— a → {ɛ,e} / _rC
— ai oi ui ei au ou iu ɛ(o)u → eː oe əi iː {ɑː,ɔː} ʌu ju j(ʌ)u
— ɛː → ɛi (→ əi?) / in some northern varieties
— iː eː ɛː aː oː uː {øː,yː} → əi i {i,e} e o u ø
— æ → ɛ / _C[+alveolar]
— a ɔ u → {a,ɑ} ɔ ʌ
Application of the Scottish vowel-length rule:
— V → Vː / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#}
— əi → aɪ / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#} (pursuant to the above)
Marcas Brian MacStiofáin Ó Mhaitiú Ó Domhnaill, from personal research
NB: This is an alternate listing of sound changes from Old English to Scots presented by a native speaker, which leads into a listing of sound changes to the Falkirk dialect.
æː → ɛː
ɑ → a / ! _{l,r} (sporadic)
oː → ju / {n,x}_
oː → iu / _K
oː → ø
øː → eː “(not a thorough change)”
ø → ɪ
æː(ɑ) eː(o) → ɛ iː
ɛ → ɜi → i / _{m,ɲ}
ai → aː
e → ɛ / _nt
{y,i} → ɪ
ɪ → ɜ / _{K,r}
e(o) → ɛ
u → ʊ → ɵ → ʌ
uː → u
o → ʌ / P_r
æ → ɑ / _{x,l}
æ(ɑ) → e
ɔ{ɡ,j} → ʌu
ɑː → e / ! _{ŋ,n}
ʌ → ɪi (sporadic)
a → ɪ / “unstressed and/or final”
N → ∅ / _C ! _%C
xw → ʍ
S[+ voice] → S[- voice] / _#
d~ð → d / V_u
d~ð → ð / V_V
t → ∅ / p_
dʒ → tʃ / _#
{f,v} → ∅ / {l,r,V}_ (sometimes blocked)
ð → ∅ / {l,r,V}_C
θ → h / _ɪ
θ → f / {V,r}_# (sometimes blocked)
θ → ∅
V → Vː / _{r,F[+ voice],V,#}
m → n / _f
e → ɛ / “unstressed”
∅ → ə̆ / _{n,r}
k → ∅ / n_t (sporadic)
m → ∅ / _n
l → ∅ / u_
l → u / {ɔ,ɑ}_
{ɔu,ɑu} → ɑ
t → d / r_
{w,k} → ∅ / _{n,r}
m → n / _f
s → ʂ / _{t,r}
t → ʈ / _r
t → ʔ / V_V
t → ʔ / _#
u → ʏ
Marcas Brian MacStiofáin Ó Mhaitiú Ó Domhnaill, from personal research
pVn tVn kVn → ʔm̩ ʔn̩ ʔŋ̩ / _#
V → Ṽː / _nC “(works across word boundaries)”
n → ∅ / V_C (in words of more than one syllable)
k → ç / V_# ! _C “(sometimes)”; “(except when phonemic)”
ɡ → ʝ / V_# ! _C “(most times)”
p b → ɸ β / {#,V}_ ! _C
V → Ṽ / N_
n → ∅ / V_V# “in some disyllabic words”
l → ʟ
ʟ → ʊ / {a,ɛ}_, typically ! _V
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Samuel (1919), Historical Outlines of English Phonology and Midd le English Grammar for Courses in Chaucer, Middle English, and the History of the English Language; and Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Middle English phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_English_phonology&oldid=456896605>
Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
eɑ eːɑ eo eːo → ɑ ɛː e eː
æj → aj → ej
{æːj,e(ː)j} → ej
ɑɣ → ɑw
{eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
eːɑw iːw → ew ju
{ɑːw,ɑːɣ,oːw} → ɔːw
oɣ → ɔːw / _V
{ɑːht,o(ː)ht} → ow
ɑː → ɔː
ɑ e o → ɑː ɛː oː / in U[+open] ! in #U with the following U containing /iː/ or ending in one of /m n r l/
y(ː) → i(ː)
Vː → V[-long] / in #U before a U with /iː/
m → n → ∅ / _# when unstressed
hn {wl,hl} hr → w l r
f θ s ɣ → v ð z ɡ / #_
ɣ → w / C_V
{e,ɑ,o} → ə / _#
e → ∅ / if another /e/ one syllable previous
Pogostick Man and Marcas Brian MacStiofáin Ó Mhaitiú Ó Domhnaill, the former from Wikipedia contributors (2016), “Forth and Bargy dialect”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forth_and_Bargy_dialect&oldid=703468711>; and the latter from personal research
C → ∅ / C_%
t d → θ ð (conditioning unclear)
∅ → ɛ / uː_d
F → F[+ voice] / #_ ! F = ʍ
ʍ → f (at least one instance of → w, before a high front vowel)
U → U[+ stress] / #U_ (often)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Old Frisian”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Frisian&oldid=461768402>
k ɡ → tʃ j / _E
ɡ → j / E_
aj aw ew → {eː,aː} aː ja
h → ∅ / V_V
TzirTzi, from Goblirsch, Kurt Gustav (2002), “The North Frisian lenition and Danish linguistic hegemony”. In Carr, Gerald F., and Irmengard Raugh (2002), New Insights in Germanic Linguistics III:46 – 65
p t k → b d ɡ → v r ɣ / Vː_{V,#}
Vowel length neutralized (to long vowels?)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Old Dutch”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Dutch&oldid=588537679>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Germanic umlaut”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_umlaut&oldid=602634218>
eː oː → ie uo
ai au → eː oː
h → ∅ / #_C
jan → en / CC_#
j → ∅ / CC_
h → ∅ / V_V
xs → sː
Final obstruents devoice
a → ɒ? (→ o) / _ɫ
Some vowel reduction seems to have occurred in unstressed syllables
ai u → ei ʏ / _(C…){i(ː),j} (short only; in the case of [ʏ] at least this was not yet phonemic)
a → ɛ / _(C…){i(ː),j} (conjectured based on date from the “Germanic umlaut” article)
uː → ʉw / _V (probably, in most areas)
uː → ʊw / _V (probably, in areas that did not undergo the above change, such as Limburg)
uː → ʉː (probably, in areas with uː → ʉw / _V)
ei ou → eː oː (except in southeastern dialects; *ei as a result of the umlaut of *ai was not affected)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Middle Dutch”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Dutch&oldid=602536434>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Hieronymous Bosch”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hieronymus_Bosch&oldid=601403790>
uː → yː
iu → ju / #_ (in some northern dialects)
iu → {yː,io} (outcome varies depending upon dialect; the former seems more typical)
iw → yw (dialectal)
{ie,ia,io} uo → iə uə
Umlaut phonemicizes, but only for umlauts of non-dipthongal short vowels (except in extreme eastern dialects); [ʏ] becomes a phoneme
f θ s → v ð z / syllable-initially (h → ɦ?)
V → ə / if short and unstressed
f → {x,ç} / _t (the former seems to have occurred in northern dialects, the latter in southern ones)
θ ð → t d
{uː,uw} u → ɔw o (except in the southeast)
{ol,al} {ar,er} or → ɔu aːr oːr / _C[+dental]
V[-long +stress] → Vː / in open syllables (ʏ → {œː,øː} here but this is not phonemically important; there seem to have been qualitative differences between original long vowels and long vowels resulting from this change—lengthened iː seems to have become eː, but lengthened aː merged with original aː); does not affect original long vowels or vowels in diphthongs
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Dutch Phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_phonology&oldid=602553868>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Hard and soft G in Dutch”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hard_and_soft_G_in_Dutch&oldid=594028971>
NB: This is likely highly incomplete, but the source materials did not have much to say.
l → u / o_{t,d}#
The change of /f/ to a velar fricative is often reverted by analogy
iː yː → ɛi œy
uː → ʌu (? conjectured based on the above diphthongization and on developments in Polder Dutch vowels)
Hard-vs.-soft-G phenomena:
— x ɣ → {x,χ} {ɣ,x,χ} / in northern dialects
— x ɣ → ç ʝ / in southern dialects (the articles use velar phonemes here but describes them as “front velar”; based on the description and on representations in other articles, the palatal phonemes are used here)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Dutch Phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_phonology&oldid=602553868>
ɛi œy ʌu → ai ay au
eː øː oː → ɛi œy ɔu
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Dutch Phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_phonology&oldid=602553868>
ɛi œy ɔu → ɛː œː ɔː
Paweł Ciupak, from Behr, Hans-Joahim, Ingrid Bennewitz, et al. (2004). Die Bamberg (BA)-Braunschweiger (BS) Grammatik des Alt- und Mittelhochdeutschen im Internet. <https://www.tu-braunschweig.de/Medien-DB/germanistik/babs260304.pdf>; Kundert, Ursula (2009). Einführung in das Mittelhochdeutsche. <http://www.germsem.uni-kiel.de/mediaevistik/materialien/Kundert_Mhdreader_090330.pdf>; and Anonymous (2009). Mittelhochdeutsche Kurzgrammatik. <https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/47053276/Kurzgrammatik-HA_09_2009.pdf>
s → ʃ / #_{l,m,n,w,p,t}
s → ʃ / r_
t → {ts,k} / _w
x → k / _s
{h,j} → ∅ / V_V
w j → b ɡ / {l,r}_ (occasionally otherwise)
w → ∅ / {ou,øy,yː}_
w → v
aː → oː / _{N,C[+ dental],P,h} (sporadic?)
aː → oː / {N,C[+ dental],P,h}_ (sporadic?)
e(ː) i → ø(ː) y / _C[+ affricate]
e(ː) i → ø(ː) y / _{P,l,ʃ} (sporadic?)
e(ː) i → ø(ː) y / {P,l,ʃ}_ (sporadic?)
y(ː) yə ø(ː) øy → i(ː) iə e(ː) ei (intermittent)
uː yː iː → ou øy ei, except in certain unstressed endings and monosyllables, _C{C,V,#} (“especially before /xt/”), and Low German borrowings
uə yə iə → uː yː iː
ou øy ei → au oy ai
u y → o ø / _N (with some occasional exceptions)
aːw → au
Vː → V[- long] / _CC (some exceptions; the change was more common around _xt and _rC)
Vː → V[- long] / _%Cə{r,l,n}# (some exceptions)
V → Vː / _%, when stressed (except for /ə/?)
V → Vː / _r{t,d,s,ts} (except /ə/)
V → Vː / in some monosyllables ending in alveolar resonants or vowels
V → Vː / by analogy in some cases
ə → ∅ / unstressed, but not in every case
∅ → ə / M_r% (I don’t know what Mr. Ciupak means by 〈M〉)
Pogostick Man, from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Germanic umlaut”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_umlaut&oldid=602634218>
p t k → fː zː xː / V_V
p t k → f z x / _#
p t k → pf ts kx / #_
p t k → pf ts kx / {L,N}_
pː tː kː → pf ts kx
b d ɡ → p t k
ɣ → ɡ
β → b / V_V
β → b / _l
s → ʃ / #_{p,t}
sk → ʃ / #_
{θ,ð} → d
a u o → e y ø / _(C…){i(ː),j}
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Old Saxon phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon_phonology&oldid=598609310>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Old Saxon”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&oldid=598557577>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Germanic umlaut”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_umlaut&oldid=602634218>
ai au → eː oː
β → v
vː ɣː hː → bː ɡː xː (perhaps not strictly a sound change, but worth noting)
f θ s → v ð z / syllable-initially
v → f / _C ! _d
b d → p t / _C[-voice]
k → ts / _E (ɡ → dz here?)
n → ŋ / _{k,ɡ}
ɡ → k / ŋ_#
ɡ → ʝ / _E (singleton only)
ɡ → ɣ / _V (singleton only)
ɡ → x / _#
F[-voice] → F[+voice] / X[+voiced]_X[+voiced]?
Umlaut applies; going by the orthography, only a → e / _(C…){i(ː),j} is often marked (and even then haphazardly), but based upon reflexes in the daughter languages it seems that the umlaut had to apply to the other back vowels too
Pogostick Man, from Theiling, Henrik, http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s17/rules.sch
wi → u / Ci_C
Eβu Eβo → juː joː
aβ{u,o} → au
β → ∅ / V_B
{æ,e}ː(w(a)) → aː
oː → a / _n%
z x → ʀ h
i → j / _V ! in #U
j → i / C_
n → ∅ / V{ː,V}_hV
Vn → Vː / _hV
(w)u(ː) i(ː) → (w)o(ː) e(ː) / _(C)(C)a ! CC = NC or one C = {ʀ,j}
iu → yː
{æ,e}ːuː {æ,e}ːiː → eu ai
w{o,u}ːwuː j{e,i}ːjiː → uː iː
w → ∅ / _w
j → ∅ / _i
o(u) {ɔ,ɑ,au,ai,æ} {ja,jE,æ(i),e(i),y} → u a i
Vː → V[- long] / ! #U, U#
Pogostick Man, from Theiling, Henrik, http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s17/rules.sch
θ → f / _l
i → ɪ / _NS[- voice] ! _NS(C){o,i,j}
i → eː / _ʀ#
b {w,v} d ð ɡ → p f t θ k / _#
j → ∅ / #_
EːBː Eːaː → joː jaː / {v,w}_
BːB aː{o,a,æ,e} {æ,e}ː{æ,e}ː {æ,e}ːi iːEː → oː aː eː eː iː
e → i / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C){i,j}
e → ja / ! {{h,k,ŋ}n,w,v,l,r}_, _{u,o,i}
a(i) {e,w{æ,i}} {we,ei} (w)ɪ → ey ø y ʏ / w_ ! hw_
a → ∅ / C(C)_{ʀ,s,t,θ}#
VN → Ṽ / _# ! in #U
u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ y yː / _(C)(C)(C)j
a → ∅ / _{ʀ,s,t,θ}#
oː → u / _#
ʀ → r_n
ʀ → r / C_n
ʀn → nː
w → ∅ / C_o
a → ∅ / CC_U#
a → u / %u / ! in #U
waː naː → oː noː / %u in #U
a(ː) ae → o(ː) ɒø / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C)u
a → ∅ / _U#
{(j)u,we}ː {o,ɒ}ː aː au → yː øː æː æy
u {o,ɒ} a → y ø æ / _(C)(C)(C)i
{B,E} → ∅ / CC_{ʀ,s,t,θ}# ! B = ɒ
u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)i
E → ∅ / _{ʀ,s,t,θ}
u → o / _m#
u → ∅ / _({ʀ,s,t,θ})#
{B,E} → ∅ / CC_U# ! B = ɒ
V → Vː / _l{P,w,k,#}
{a,æ,e}ːhiː → æː
ɒːh{u,a} aːh{u,a} → ɒː aː
{B,E} → ∅ / _U# ! B = ɒ
u → o / _m#
Vː → V[- long] / ! in #U
{u,we,wi} {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)i
wa we wi → ɒː øː yː / #P_
w → ∅ / #P_Vː
e → jɒ / _(C)(C)(C)u ! {{h,k,ŋ}n,w,v,l,r}_
e → ja / _(C)(C)(C)u ! {{h,k,ŋ}n,w,v,l,r}_
au {ai,ey,ei} æ{y,i} øy Vː → o e æ ø V / #(C)(C)(C)_CC
V[- long] → ∅ / #U_UU
u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)j
u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / #(C)(C)_ʀ
b → ∅ / m_s
d → ∅ / {l,m}_{b,ɡ,k,l,m,n,s}
ð → ∅ / n_ ! ɡ_
ð → ∅ / r_{m,l,ɡ,n}
{f,β,p} → ∅ / r_n
{f,β,p} → ∅ / l_{d,ɡ,n,ð,t}
{ɡ,ɣ} → ∅ / l_{ð,t}
{ɡ,ɣ} → ∅ / r_{d,n,t}
k → ∅ / l_s
k → ∅ / r_{m,s,t}
k → ∅ / s_l,t
l → ∅ / ŋ_s
l → ∅ / r_{m,s}
l → ∅ / s_t
n → ∅ / f_{d,s,t}
n → ∅ / l_b
n → ∅ / m_{s,b}
n → ∅ / ŋ_{s,w}
n → ∅ / r_{s,t,w}
n → ∅ / t_s
r → ∅ / {ð,f}_{ɡ,ɣ}
r → ∅ / k_{n,s}
r → ∅ / m_m
r → ∅ / t_{k,s}
t → ∅ / {ɡ,ɣ}_s
t → ∅ / p_{ɡ,ɣ,n}
t → ∅ / r_k
t → ∅ / s_{k,l,n,s}
{s,z} → ∅ / {r,ʀ}_N
{v,w} → ∅ / #_V[+ round]
rː{r,ʀ} sʀ → rː sː
l(ː)ʀ n(ː)ʀ → lː nː / ”Vː_ (or all V_ ?)
{l(ː),n}{r,ʀ} → ∅ / V{ː,V}_
nː lː rː sː → n l r s / C_
{t,θ,d,ð} → ∅ / n_l
{t,θ,d,ð} → ∅ / l_n
lː nː → l n / C_#
ai wi (w)V → eː weː (w)Vː / _h#
ɒ → oː / n_h
{æ,e}i ai au w{ɪ,i} wy wV iu Vː → eː aː oː weː woː wVː eː oː V
ey → {jo,æ}ː / _ʀ
i → eː / _#
ðl(ː) ðn(ː) → lː nː
ʏ ɪ → ø e
V{θ,ð} → Vː / #(C)(C)(C)_{l,r}
ai → aː / _r
ai → aː / _h{C,V}
æ → e
lθ nθ → lː nː
Ṽ → Vː / in #U (maybe only ı̃?)
Ṽ → V[- nas]
β ð ɣ → f θ k / _{p,t,k,s}
β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / #_
β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / {m,n,ŋ,l}_
β ɣ → b ɡ / r_
ɣ → ɡ / _{r,ʀ,θ,ð}
β ɣ → f h / _%
ɣ → ɡ / _{E,j}
β ð ɣ → v θ h
(Vː)θt → (V)tː
Eː{u,o}ː Eːaː → joː jaː / {v,w}_
θ → t / {p,t,k}_
θː ðː → tː dː
θ f → ð v / {V,C[+ voiced]}_{V,C[+ voiced]}
h → ∅ / C_t
ht → tː
hw → ∅ / ! #_
F[- voice] → ∅ / {s,f,x,h,t}_{p,t,k}
nː → ð / _{r,ʀ}
woː wøː jæː Vː → wo wøje V[- long] / _%
NS[- voice] → S[- voice]ː
{t(ː),ɡː}k → kː
ts → sː / V_V
uN yN iN VN → o øː eː Vː / _{s,f}
Sː → S[- long] / U[- stress]_
lθ nθ → lː nː
p → f / _{t,k}
t → θ / _{p,k}
k → x / _{p,t}
m → f / _{n,ŋ}
n → θ / _{m,ŋ}
ŋ → x / _{m,n}
s → ts / {l,n}ː_
∅ → t / s_r
ɣ → ɡː / _j
ʀ → r
w → v / #_
Sː → S[- long] / _{r}ː
ɡ → ∅ / #_n
r → ∅ / {p,t,k}_Vr
rː lː → r l / {p,t,k,f,s}_
o {æ,e} → u i / ! in #U
o → u / V_
a → e / _i
ɪʊ → yː
ø øː → e æː
e(ː){B,i(ː)} → e(ː)u / {v,w}_
eː{Bː,i(ː)} → joː / _C[+ alveolar]#
eː{Bː,i(ː)} → juː
∅ → j / {y,e}(ː)_a
N(ː) k k(ː) N(ː)ɡ ɡ(ː) ɣ → ɲc(ː) c(ː) ɲɟ(ː) ɟ(ː) ʝ / _{i,j}
j → ∅ / Ḱ_
a → e / _{i,j,Ḱ}
N(ː) k k(ː) N(ː)ɡ ɡ(ː) ɣ → ɲc(ː) c(ː) ɲɟ(ː) ɟ(ː) ɟ / _{i,j}
f θ → v ð / #_
f → v / _{p,t,k}
j → ∅ / {c,ɟ}_
j → ∅ / _eː
au → ɒ / j_
eː → e / Ḱ_
eː j → e ∅ / Cw_
k → h / #_{v,n}
Pogostick Man, from Theiling, Henrik, http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s17/rules.sch
k → ç / _#
n → ŋ / _{k,ɡ}
t → ð / V_# “in some verbal endings”
∅ → u / C_r#
waː → wo
ɒ ɒː → ø aː
øː → æ
u o a ø y e i → uː oː aː øi yː ei iː / _{ɲc,ɲɟ,ŋk,ŋɡ}
ɡ ɟ → ɣ j / V_V
ɡ → ɣ / V_#
hj → ç
u o a øː eː y i → ʏɪ oi ai øi ei yː iː / _j
aː → ai / _j
e → ei / _{ɣ,j}
O → ∅ / {F[- same POA],r,l}_O
S → ∅ / N[+ same POA]_S
{l(ː),rl} → ɬ / v_#
N → N[- voice] / O_#
{l(ː),rl} C → ɬ C[- voice] / _{S[- voice],s}
r → r̥ / S[- voice] / _#
{l(ː),rl} C → ɬ C[- voice] / S_ ! Sː_
{l(ː),rl} rː → dɬ r̥ / _#
S[- voice]ː S[+ voice]ː → ʰS S[- voice]ː
S[- voice] → ʰS / _{l,ɬ,m,n}
S[- voice] → Sʰ / #v_V
S[+ voice] → S[- voice]
p t k → f θ x / _{S,F[- voice]}
b d {ɡ,ɣ} → p t k / _S
F → S[- voice] / _{l,N}
u oː aː ʏɪ {y,i} {y,i}ː æː eː ey → ʏ ou au ai y ɪ i je ei
w → v
V → Vː / _(C)#, in monosyllables
V → Vː / ! _CCV, in polysyllables
{n̥n,nn̥ → tn̥ / V_
nː → tn̥ / V_#
nː → tn / V_
nn̥,n̥n → n̥
nː → n
{r̥n,r̥n̥,rn̥ → tn̥
rn → tn̥ / _#
r → t / _n
{r,r̥,l}ɬ → tɬ
{ɬl,ɬː → tɬ
r̥l → tɬ
{lː,rl} → tɬ / _#
{lː,rl} → tl
h → k / #_{v,w}
hl → ɬ / #_
hr hn → r̥ n̥ / #_
v → ∅ / {u,o,a}ː_
n̥ → m̥ / p_#
Cː → C[- long]
Pogostick Man and Marcas Brian MacStiofáin Ó Mhaitiú Ó Domhnaill, from http://nornlanguage.x10.mx/index.php?ork_phon, citing Marwick, Hugh, “Orkney Norn”
NB: For the most part, these changes are not in chronological order and are often tendencies more than strict sound-change laws.
ny → in
f → m / _n
n → ∅ / m_
p(ː) t(ː) k(ː) → b(ː) d(ː) ɡ(ː) / {V,R}_{V,R}
{t,d}j → tʃ
d → ∅ / n_# (sometimes)
b d ɡ → p t k / #_
k → s / _n
ɡ → k / _# (sporadic)
ɡn ɡl → nj lj
k ɡ → c ɟ / _{E,j}
f → ∅ / _{l,b,v,n,#}
f → ∅ / Vː_V
fd → dː
h → ∅ / _{l,n,r}
hw hj → {w,ʍ} ʃ
h → x / _i
θ → h / #_B
θ → ð / V_V
θ → t
ð → θ / _#
ð → ∅ /{a,E}_
ð → d / ! V_V
sk → {sk,ʃ,ks}
s → ∅ / {t,k,r}_l
s → ʃ / _Vr ?
ɣ → ∅
l → ∅ / V_V
l → ∅ / _{m,s,k}
l → ∅ / _# ?
lm → ml (sporadic)
lː → ʎ
v → w
u a e eː → ʌ ɑ ɪ ɛ / _Cː
u → ø / _l(ː)
u → ʌ / _C{ː,CC}
uː → øː / _CC
o a → ø ɛ / _(C)(C)i
o → ø / _Cr
oː → øː / _(C)(C)#
oː → u(ː)
joː → {u,o,ø} (looks like being in the ultima or the penult may have had something to do with it, but it isn’t clear to me)
ɒ → ɔ / _C(ː)C
ɒ → ʌ / _r(ː)
ɒ → {ɛ,e} / _CːV (V can be a syllabic consonant)
ɒ → ɪ / _rC
au → (ɔ)u
a aː → ɛ øː / _r
a → ɔ / _{l,nd}C
ja → i
æ → eː / _{ð,r}
æ → ɛː
œ → ɛː / _CC
œ → ø / _l
œ → iː / _N
œ → eː
yː → ø / _j
yː → i
y → {ɪ,i}
e iː → ɛ i(ː)
ey → eː / _F
ey → ɛ / _r
ey → ai
ei → eː / _C(ː,V)# (V can be a syllabic consonant)
e → a / _i
i → ɪ / _CC
V[- long] → ∅ / _#
Pogostick Man and Marcas Brian MacStiofáin Ó Mhaitiú Ó Domhnaill, from http://nornlanguage.x10.mx/index.php?shet_phon, citing Jakobsen, Jakob, An Etymological Dictionary of the Norn Language
NB: For the most part, these changes are not in chronological order and are often tendencies more than strict sound-change laws. Further, I’m assuming that 〈ä〉 is /æ/ and that 〈o̧〉 and 〈ȯ〉 are /ɒ/, and since I’m not sure what the conditions are for (apparent) reflexes with long vowels, I’m ignoring the vowel length in the Shetland Norn reflexes.
p t k → b d ɡ / V_V (the second V at least can be a syllabic consonant)
b d → p t / N_
b → v / #_ (sporadic?)
lm → ml
∅ → b / m_l
nd ld (→ nː lː ?) → ɲ ʎ
dj → dʒ
ɡ(ː) → dʒ / _iV
k ɡ → c ɟ / _E
tr → rd
pː tː kː → b d {ɡ,ɣ} / V_V
tː → {tʲ,dʲ}
tj → tʃ / _#
tj → ʃ
ɡl → lɡ
f → v / #_ (sporadic?)
f → m / _n
f → p / _t
v → w / #_
n → ∅ / _m#
vl → lv
θ → {t,d}
ð → ∅ / _#
ð → d
s → ∅ / k_l
∅ → h / #_V
h → ∅ / _{V,w,j} (sporadic)
h → ∅ / _l
h → {∅,h,k} / _r
h → {∅,h,k,s} / _n
hv → {h,k,s}w
hj → ʃ
n l → ɲ ʎ / _C
nː → ɲ(d)
rn {lː,rl} → ɲ ʎ
ms → ŋ(k)s
r alternates with l
{u,o}(ː) a aː {ɒ,œ,y} e i(ː) → {o,ɔ}(i) æ(i) {ɔ,ɒ}(i) {o,ɔ}(i) {æ,e} / _{Ḱ,Cʲ}
u → {o,ɒ} / _CC
uː → {u,o,ɒ,ø} (conditioning unclear; it seems the presence of a velar consonant may have helped to retain the quality of /u/)
oː → u
ɒ → ɛ / _Cː
ɒ → ø / _O[+ dental/alveolar]
{ɒ,ey} j{u,o,a}ː yː → o ø u / Ḱ_
j{u,o,a}ː → ø
a → ∅ / C[+ dental/alveolar]_u
a → {o,ɔ} / _{K,r} (! K = w ?)
aː → wo (dialectal)
aː → ɔ(u) / _{l,r}
au → {o,ɔ,ɒ} / j_
au → j{o,ɔ}
y → ə / _r(ː)
yː → ø / _O[+ dental/alveolar]
æ → e / ! _{Ḱ,Cʲ}
e → {o,ɒ} / _w
eː → {ɒ,ə} / w_
e eː → {æ,ɛ,e} {(j)ɛ,je}
ey → ø
Final short vowels drop
Jaceb Kilpatrick & Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Vandalic language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vandalic_language&oldid=686359598>
NB: This is likely incomplete.
h → ∅ / #_
eː → i / unstressed
e → i / ! {w,r,h}_
oː → u
wː → ɡ
w → {ɡw,v} / #_
tj → tsj
θ ð → t d (not a complete change; apparently due to Latin)
z → ∅ (seems to have been complete by the Sixth Century)
It is entirely possible that I utterly failed to interpret the source documents correctly. If so, please do not hesitate to correct me.
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
ɑː → æː
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
tʃ → t / #_
tʃ → tː / medial
w → ∅
Vowel contraction (on which the author does not elaborate much)
Some “metathesis of quality as well as of quantity” with regards to vowels
u(ː)(j) → y(ː)(j)
æː → ɛː (includes diphthongs)
ej ow → eː oː
eː → iː / _C
j → ∅ / Vː_
eː → iː / _V
ɛː → eː
ɑj → ɛː
h → ∅
oj → øj → yj (→ yː sometimes)
e o → ɛ ɔ
pʰ tʰ kʰ → f θ x
Pitch-accent lost
b d ɡ → v ð ɣ / V_V
dz → z
Vː → V[-long]
Cː → C[-long]
ɑu ɛu eu → ɑv ɛv ev
ɔ → ∅ / in the suffixes -ios and -ion
n → ∅ / _#
e → i
p t k → b d ɡ / N_
y → i
ɡ x → j ç / _{ɛ,i}
p k → f x / _t
”{i,e}V → j”V
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
{eː,ej} ɛː ɑ(ː)j {oj,ɔːj} → iː eː ɛː {y,ø}
oː → uː
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
NB: This assumes that the adjective “Coan” refers to the “Ceos” Tucker mentions in the source.
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
æː → ɛː
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Vns → V(ː)s (Tucker says that “[i]n a few Doric dialects the lengthening did not occur”)
n → ∅ / _s
tʃ → t / #_
tʃ → tː / medial
h → ∅ (in those “dialects of the western fringe of Asia Minor and the near-by islands”)
Vowel contraction (on which the author does not elaborate much)
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
h → ∅
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
ɑː → æː
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
tʃ → s / #_
tʃ → sː / medial
VCw → VːC
w → ∅
h → ∅ (in Eastern Ionic)
Vowel contraction (on which the author does not elaborate much)
æː → ɛː
ej ow → eː oː happened “in the various Ionic dialects at various dates”
Some “metathesis of quality as well as of quantity” with regards to vowels; did not occur to the same degree as it did in Attic
u(ː)(j) → y(ː)(j)
oː → uː (?)
j → ∅ / Vː_
eː → iː / _V
ɛː → eː
ɑj → ɛː
h → ∅
oj → øj → yj (→ yː sometimes)
e o → ɛ ɔ
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Vns → Vːs
n → ∅ / _s
pʰ tʰ kʰ → f θ x
Pogostick Man, from Tucker, R. Whitney (1969), “Chronology of Greek Sound Changes”. The American Journal of Philology 90(1):36 – 47; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Ancient Greek dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_dialects&oldid=575325271>
{Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → pʰ tʰ kʰ
s → h / #_
s → h / V_V
t → ts / _i
j → h
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
ts → s
h → ∅
Goatface
ḱ ɡ́ ɡ́ʱ → k ɡ ɡʱ
bʱ dʱ ɡʱ → p t k
kʷ ɡʷ ɡʷʱ → ku ɡu ku
t → ts / _{i,e}
m → ∅ / _#
e(ː) → a(ː) / _h2
e(ː) → a(ː) / h2_
e(ː) → o(ː) / _h3
e(ː) → o(ː) / h3_
h3 → ∅ / _o “(according to Kortlandt)”
h2 → x (or some sort of dorsal or laryngeal fricative?)
o(ː) → a(ː)
{uː,eu,au} → u
m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩ → am an ar al
w → m / u_
“Changes I’m less sure of”
— r → ∅ / #_
— r → ∅ / _# “sometimes??”
— e(ː) → a(ː) / _R “sometimes??”
— e(ː) → a(ː) / “when unstressed?”
Tropylium, from Kobayashi, Masato (2004), Historical Phonology of Old Indo-Aryan Consonants
e → a / _{h2,h3}
e → a / {h2,h3}_
p → b / _h3
H → ə / “syllabic”
ə → ∅ / #_
{h1,h3} → *H
*H → ∅ / S_
Kʷ → K
s → ʃ / {u,i,l,r,K,Ḱ}
Ḱ → TŠ
Bʱ1P2 → B1Bʱ2 / “includes s ʃ > zʱ ʒʱ”
BʱBʱ → BBʱ
ptʃ → pʃ
ttʃ ddʒʱ → t.ʃ d.ʒʱ
t → ∅ / _ʃt
d → ∅ / _ʒdʱ
tʃʃ → ʃː
k ɡ ɡʱ → c ɟ ɟʱ / _e,i,j
o → aː / _CV, “does not affect o2 < eh3”
{e,o,o2,N̊} → a
Tropylium, from Kobayashi, Masato (2004), Historical Phonology of Old Indo-Aryan Consonants
ə → i
Sh2 → S[+ aspirated]
h2 → *H
VH → Vː / _{C,#}
R̊H → {u,i}R / _V (sporadic)
R̊H → {u,i}ːR / _C
ʃ ʒ → ʂ ʐ
n → ɳ / R(V)_
t d(ʱ) n → ʈ ɖ(ʱ) ɳ / C̣_ ! _r
s t d(ʱ) n → ʂ ʈ ɖ(ʱ) ɳ / _C̣
ls lt ld(ʱ) ln → ʂ ʈ ɖ(ʱ) ɳ / “disputed”
s → ʂ / _V{ʂ,ʈ,ɖ(ʱ)}
∅ → a / #_z
uʐ aʐ iʐ → uː əː iː
əː → oː / w_
əː → eː
tʃ dʒ(ʱ) → tɕ dʑ(ʱ) → ɕ ɟ(ʱ)
tst dzdʱ → tː dʱː
k → ∅ / #_t
p → ∅ / #_st
ɟʱ → ɦ
dʱ → ɦ / (unclear environment)
bʱ → ɦ (very rare)
Vm → Ṽ / _(#){s,ɕ}
n → ɲ / ɟ_
Pogostick Man, from Shukla, Shaligram (1974), “Phonological change and dialect variation in Middle-Indo-Aryan”. In Anderson, J., and C. Jones (Eds.), Historical Linguistics II:391-401.
C(C) → ∅ / C_#
VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
j w → dʒ b / V_V
C → C[+voiced] / V_V
{bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
e o → i u / _#
Vː → V[-long] / _#
ah → o
ɽ → i
ʂ → x / k_
{ʂ,ç} → s
v → ∅ / {t,d}_
C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
dʒɲ → ɳː / V_V
Pogostick Man, from Shukla, Shaligram (1974), “Phonological change and dialect variation in Middle-Indo-Aryan”. In Anderson, J., and C. Jones (Eds.), Historical Linguistics II:391-401.
C(C) → ∅ / C_#
VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
j w → dʒ b / V_V
C → C[+voiced] / V_V
{bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
b {d,dʒ,ɡ} → v j / V_V
Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
e o → i u / _#
Vː → V[-long] / _#
ah → e
ɽ → i
kʂ → hk
ʂ s → s ç
r → l
v → ∅ / {t,d}_
C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
dʒɲ → ɲː / V_V
Pogostick Man, from Shukla, Shaligram (1974), “Phonological change and dialect variation in Middle-Indo-Aryan”. In Anderson, J., and C. Jones (Eds.), Historical Linguistics II:391-401.
C(C) → ∅ / C_#
VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
j w → dʒ b / V_V
C → C[+voiced] / V_V
{bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
e o → i u / _#
Vː → V[-long] / _#
ah → o
ɽ → i
kʂ → tʃː
{ʂ,ç} → s
sC → Ch
v → ∅ / {t,d}_
C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
dʒɲ → ɳː / V_V
Pogostick Man, from Shukla, Shaligram (1974), “Phonological change and dialect variation in Middle-Indo-Aryan”. In Anderson, J., and C. Jones (Eds.), Historical Linguistics II:391-401.
C(C) → ∅ / C_#
VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
j w → dʒ b / V_V
C → C[+voiced] / V_V
{bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
e o → i u / _#
Vː → V[-long] / _#
ah → o
ɽ → i
kʂ → tʃː
{ʂ,ç} → s
tv dv → p b
C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
dʒɲ → ɳː / V_V
Tropylium, from Kobayashi, Masato (2004), Historical Phonology of Old Indo-Aryan Consonants
{s,ʂ} → h / _#C[- voice]
{s,ʂ} → r / _#C[+ voice]
l → r
ɖ(ʱ) → ɭ(ʱ)
sɕ ɕʂ → ɕː ʂː
sː ʂː ɕː → t.s t.ʂ t.C
t.ʂ t.ɕ → kʂ cʰː
cʰː → cʰ / C_
bzʱ → ps
{pʂ,cʂ,ɟʐʱ,ɡʐʱ} → kʂ
Tropylium, from Kobayashi, Masato (2004), Historical Phonology of Old Indo-Aryan Consonants
ɭ(ʱ) → ɖ(ʱ)
H → ∅
au aːu ai aːi → au oː ai eː / ! _V
w → v
Hwhatting
NB: “Not in chronological order”
bʱ dʱ {ɡʱ,ɡ́ʱ} ɡʷʱ → b d ɡ ɡʷ
Kʷ ḱ ɡ́ → K s z
s → x / {i,u,r,k}_
k ɡ x → tʃ ʒ ʃ / _{e(ː)(i),i(ː)}
{a,o,ə} → e / j_
{a,o,ə} → o
i u → ь ъj
iː uː → i ɨ
u → ь / j_
e(ː)i → i
{ai,oi} → i / j_
{ai,oi} → æː
{aːi,oːi} → {æː,a} (the former seems to be more common)
{a(ː)u,o(ː)u} e(ː)u → u ju
e → ь / _jV
e → o / _wV
w → v
l̩ r̩ → {ьl,ъl} {ьr,ъr}
{m̩,n̩} → {ẽ,õ} / _C$
m̩ n̩ → {ьm,ъm} {ьn,ъn}
æː → a / “After palatal fricatives and affricates”
{e(ː),i(ː)} {a(ː),o(ː),u(ː)} → ẽ õ / _N$
oi o → i ъ / “Sometimes in final syllables”
{O,N} → ∅ / _$
k ɡ x → ts dz s / _{æː,i}
k ɡ x → ts dz s / “After some syllables with front vowels”
sj zj → ʃ ʒ
kj ɡj xj → tʃ ʒ ʃ
Xiądz Faust, in http://pittmirg.ovh.org/inne/psc.pdf http://pittmirg.ovh.org/inne/psc.pdf, mainly citing Klemensewicz et al. (1955), “Gramatyka historyczna języka polskiego”, and Dubisz and Długosz-Kurczabowa (2003?), “Gramatyka historyczna języka polskiego”
NB: The original document heavily uses Slavistic notation as opposed to IPA; I’ve done the best I could in figuring this stuff out but be warned of possible errors.
sk x → ɕtɕ ɕ / _E
x → ɕ / E_
ɛl → lɔ / T_T “in certain cases (mostly after a PSl. palato-alveolar”)
ɔl ɔr ɛl ɛr → lɔ rɔ lɛ rɛ / T_T
ɔr ɔl → ra la / #_T “in syllables with long vowels”
ɔr ɔl → rɔ lɔ / #_T
C → Cʲ / _E ! /j ɕ ʑ
j → lʲ / {p,b,m,v}_ (sporadic)
ɛ ɛ̃ ɛː → ɔ ɔ̃ a / _C[-palatalized +dental] (also sporadically before plain non-dentals)
ɛː → ɛ
Havlik’s law:
— {ь,ъ} → e / iambic counting from U# or a syllable not containing a yer
— {ь,ъ} → ∅] / in even syllables counting iambic from U# or a syllable not containing a yer
— “[H]owever: in the vicinity of *j the development of yers did not comply with the aforementioned law”
ъ → aː / _r
ъl → ɔ(ː)ɫ / P_
ъl → ɛɫ / K_
ъl → ɫu / else
ьl → ɫu / C[+dental]_
ьl → ɛɫ / P_C[+dental -palatalized]
ьl → il / P_
ьl → ɔ(ː)ɫ
ь → aː / r_C[+dental -palatalized]
ьr → i(ː)ʐ → {ɛ(ː)r,ɛ(ː)ʐ} → {ɛr,ɛʐ}
{ɛ̃,ɔ̃} → ã
a ɛ i ɔ u ɨ ã → aː ɛː iː ɔː uː ɨː ãː / _{C/U}[+voiced][lost yer] (i.e., a voiced consonant or a cluster with one)
ajɛ → ɛː in adjectives, aː in verbs
{aja,ɔja} {ɔjɛ,ɨjɛ} ɨjɛ → aː ɛː iː
{ɛ(ː)jɛ,ьjɛ,ɔjɛ,ujɛ,ɨjɛ} → ɛː
{ɔjɔ̃,ɔ̃jɔ̃,ьjɔ̃} → ɔ̃ː
ьjь ъjь → i ɨ
jь → i / utterance-initially (cf. English utterance-initial glottal stops before vowels)
ь ъ → i ɨ / _j
ji → i / #_
{aja,ɛja,ьja,ɔja} → aː
iji ɨjɨ → i ɨ
ɔvi → ∅
O[+voice] → O[-voice] / _# (unless followed by some type of voiced consonant, be it any type of consonant or just an obstruent—this differs by location)
ɔ → ɔː / _{r,l} (sporadic, perhaps analogical)
∅ → h / _ъ
Mobile stress → initial stress → penultimate stress (in most areas)
V → ∅ / unstressed (sporadic)
i → ∅ / _# “in the infinite and imperative desinences. . .some verbs have never been affected due to a potential ‘difficult’ cluster that would result, instead they got an analogical final -j extension”
tsi ʐi → tɕ ʐ / V_
i u → u i / {lʲ,j}_ (sporadic)
tʲ dʲ sʲ zʲ nʲ rʲ l lʲ → tɕ dʒ ɕ ʑ ȵ r ɫ l (this last probably not before /i/)
iː uː ɨː → i u ɨ
ã → ɛ̃ / short only
ãː → ã → ɔ̃
aː ɔː ɛː → ɒ o e
Vː → V in certain frequently-used words
Sporadic (de)nasalization of vowels; “there were certain environments which favoured nasality changes: in the vicinity of nasal consonants. . .and before sibilants”
{i,ɨ} → ɛ / _C[+rhotic]
k ɡ → kʲ ɡʲ / _ɛ where the vowel is from a yer or a borrowing
kɨ ɡɨ → kʲi ɡʲi
ʃi ʒi tʃi dʒi ɕi ʑi → ʂɨ ʐɨ ʈʂɨ ɖʐɨ tsɨ ʒɨ
ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ ɕ ʑ → ʂ ʐ ʈʂ ɖʐ ts ʒ
r̝ → ʂ / C[-voiced]_
r̝ → ʂ / _C[+voiced]
ŕ → ʐ / else
ɛ → ɔ / _ɫ (if the vowel was from a yer)
{ɛ,a} → ɔ (sporadic)
V → ɛ (sporadic, analogical)
ɫ → w
ɒ e → a ɛ
o → ɔ / _N
o → u / else
u → ɔ (rare, sporadic)
pʲ mʲ fʲ → p m f / _#
{i,ɨ} → ∅ / _jV when unstressed
ɛ̃ → ɛ / _{#,l,ɫ}
ɔ̃ → ɔ / _{l,ɫ}
ɔ̃ → ɔ / _# (in some regions or dialects)
ɛ̃ ɔ̃ → ɛ̃N ɔ̃N / _{S,A}
ɛ̃ ɔ̃ → ɛɰ̃ ɔɰ̃ / _F[-palatal]
ɔ̃ → ɔɰ̃ / _# (in standard registers/pronunciations)
ɛ̃ ɔ̃ → ɛj̃ ɔj̃ / _F[+palatal]
ȵ → j̃ / _F
n → ŋ / _S[+velar] (regional)
“The following sections are structured according to respective sound change types without much chronology, as the sound changes tend to sporadic, irregular or inconsistent or to be trends spreading over considerable time spans.”
Cʲ → C / _C[+dental] with developments of yers in ablaut environments
Cʲ → C in select words due to prestige influence of Czech in the Middle Ages
Cʲ → C in select words otherwise, possibly by analogy
t → r / tV_
n → m / {b,p}{l,r,ʐ}V_
j → ∅ / _ɛ “in participial and deverbal forms originally with alveolopalatal consonants in the onsets of two consecutive syllables”
Oscillations involving:
— Dentals and postalveolars
— Postalveolars and alveolopalatals
— Voicing
OR → RO / V_C
RO → OR / C_V
vC → Cv / _V
Cv → vC / _C
tɕts ʑr̝ → jts jr̝
ɕtɕ → js / _{t͜s,s}
zʐ → ʐɖʐ
ʑ z → dʑ dz / _v
∅ → d / r_z
Regressive voicing/devoicing of obstruents in consonantal clusters
v r̝ → f r̥ / C[-voiced]_
v r̝ → f r̥ / _{C[-voiced],#}
r̝̊ r̝ → ʂ ʐ
Lv → L[-voiced]f / O[-voiced]_ “for many speakers”
v → ∅ / x_o
{xv,pv} → f
plv → pf
p → ∅ / #_p
ʈʂs → ts
{z,s,ʂ} → ∅ / _sC
x → ∅ / _r “in the word ‘robak’”
r̝ → r / {ɕ,ʑ}_
ʐr → ʑr
ɕr̝ ʑr̝ → ʂr ʐr / “‘szron’ and ‘żreć’”, respectively
t → ∅ / s_{ɫ,w}
ʈʂ → t / _r̝
ɕ → ∅ / tr̝_tɕ
ɡ → ∅ / _d
w → ∅ / {r,b}_
d → ∅ / ɫ_ɲ
d → ∅ / r_ts
d → ∅ / _n “in arch. ‘jeno’”
∅ → t / s_r “in ‘stręczyć’”
st ʂʈʂ → z ʐ / _b
{b,p} → ∅ / _n “in verbs in -nąć”
v → ∅ / _stv
t → ∅ / ʈʂ_v in “czworo”
s → ∅ / _ɫza in “słza”
trk → kr / in the name of the river “Skrwa”
zdʲ stʲ → {ʑ,ɕ} {s,ɕ} / _n
dʲ → ∅ / r_n
stʲ → ɕ / _l
slʲ → ∅ / _s
pv → f
ʈʂ → ʂ / _p
stʲkl → ɕtɕkl → {ɕ,s}kɫ → ʂkɫ
dz ts → d͜z t͜s
C[+sibilant]P → C[+alveolopalatal] / _C[+coronal]
C[+sibilant]P → C[+dental]
w → ∅ / C_#
w → ∅ / C_C (sporadic)
“Oscillations between dental and alveo[lo]palatals” / _C
n → s → ɕ / k_ɛ̃ where the vowel was from Proto-Slavic
n → s / k_Vn
d → ɡ / _n
ʈʂ → t / _r
ɕ → ∅ / t_ɕtɕ
“Insertion of epenthetic vowels” in some situations, typically one of /ɛ u/, the latter written as either 〈u〉 or 〈ó〉
Epenthetic d ɡ appears in some circumstances
Pʲ → P / _C
rʲ → r / _{s,t͜s,l,w,n,ɲ}
tʲ dʲ → t d / _{l,n,ɲ,r,ʐ}
ɕ ʑ → s z / _C (sometimes)
Hwhatting
NB: “Not in chronological order”
{t,d} → ∅ / V_lV
or ol er el → oro olo ere ele / _$
mj pj bj → mlʲ plʲ blʲ
tj dj → tʃ, ʒ
kt ɡd → _E
ẽ õ → ja u
je → o / #_
je → o / V_ (sporadic)
j → ∅ / #_u
j → ∅ / V_u (sporadic)
jь → i
∅ → j / #_a
Pogostick Man, from http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_C.pdf and http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_V.pdf
NB: This is likely incomplete.
p → {p,kʷ}
ḱ ǵ → k ɡ
ǵʰ gʷʰ → ɡʰ xʷ
bʰ dʰ gʰ → pʰ tʰ dʰ → ɸ θ x
s → z / medial (I’m assuming between vowels or when *s voiced in PIE)
eu → ou
Pogostick Man, from http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_C.pdf and http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_V.pdf
NB: This is likely incomplete.
x → h
ɡʷ → w
ɡʰ → f / #_
ɡʰ → {d,h,ɡ}
{ɸ,θ} → f / #_
ɸ θ → b {d,b} / V_V
z → r
xʷ → f
xʷ → {w,ɡʷ}
l̥ r̥ → ol {or,er} / _#
m̥ n̥ → em en
e → {e,i}
Mecislau, from Ramat, Anna Giacrole and Paolo Ramat, The Indo-European Languages, and other sources
e o → i u / _ŋ
e → o / _ɫ
o → u / _{mb,mk,ɫ}
o → e / w_{r,s,t}
oː → uː / _r
aj → ai → eː (in rustic dialects)
aj → ai → ae
oj → oi → oe → uː
aw → oː (in rustic dialects)
aw → au
{ew,ow} → ou → uː
V → i / %(C)(C)_% when unstressed
V → o / %(C)(C)V_% when unstressed
V → e / %(C)(C)_%r when unstressed (with some exceptions)
V → {i,u} / %(C)(C)_%P when unstressed
a o → e u / %(C)(C)_C(C)% when unstressed
a → e → i / %(C)(C)_ŋ when unstressed
a → e → u / %(C)(C)_ɫ when unstressed
e → u / %(C)(C)_ɫ when unstressed
ai → ei → iː / %(C)(C)_ when unstressed
ei oi ou → iː eː uː / %(C)(C)_ when unstressed
{i,o} → e / _#
{i,e} → ∅ / _# (sometimes)
a → e / _C(C)#
e → i / _{s,t}#
o → u / _C(C)# ! {u,w}_
{ai,ei,oi} → ei → iː / _(C)(C)#
Vː → V[-long] / _{m,(n)t,l,r}#
Vː → V[-long] / _#
j → i / C_
w → u / t_
e → o / _w
e → o / w_
w → ∅ / s_o
m̩ n̩ → em en
n̩ː → n
l̩ l̩ː r̩ r̩ː → ol l or r
bʱ → h / #_ (in rustic dialects)
{bʱ,dʱ,ɡʷʱ} → f / #_
h → ∅ / b_
t → k / _l
t → ∅ / C_#
t → d / V_
dw → b
d → ∅ / Vː_#
d → ∅ / C_
d → l “in many dialects”
dʱ → b / rV_
dʱ → b / _Vr
dʱ → b / _l
dʱ → b / uː_
dʱ → d
ḱ ɡ́ → k ɡ
ɡʱ → ɡ / ŋ_
ɡ → ∅ / _h
kʷ → ∅ / C_C
kʷ → k / _{o,i,C}
ɡʷ(ʱ) → ɡu / ŋ_
w → ∅ / ɡV_{l,r}
ɡʷ → v
ɡʷʱ → f / _r
ɡʷʱ → v / V_V
s → z → r / V_V
s → θ → f / #_r
s → θ → b / _r
s → z / _C[+voiced]
V → Vː / _zC[+voiced]
z → ∅ / _C[+voiced]
p…kʷ → kʷ…kʷ
V1…V2 → V2…V2 (rare)
V → Vː / _S[+voiced]{S[-voiced],F[-voiced]}; “(i, e, and o sometimes bypass this)”
S[+voiced] → S[-voiced] / _{S[-voiced],F[-voiced]}
S[-voiced] → S[+voiced] / _N
s → z / _{N,l,r}
V → Vː / _z{l,r}
z → ∅ / _{l,r}
S → f / _f
{t,d} → s / _s
{p,b} {t,d} → m n / _{m,n}
{k,ɡ} → ŋ / _n
mː → n / {W,Vː}_
{d,n,r} → l / _l
n → r / _r
s → z → l / l_
s → z → r / r_
n → l / l_
V → Vː / _{t,d}t
{t,d}t → tst → sː
∅ → t / sː_r
∅ → p / m_{s,t,l}
sː → s / _#
sː → s / {W,Vː}_
l → r → _Vl
l → r / lV_ “(in suffixes with l if root already has l)”
r…r → r…∅
{n,d}…r → r…r
Vː → V / _C(C)# “(irregular: often before -m, -t, -nt, but never before ?s)”
V → {Vː,V[+nas]} / _n{f,s}
n → ∅ / V[+nas]_
C1C2C3C4 → (C3)C4
C1C2C3 → C1C3
“The following relate to the changes of vowels as found in the evolution to the written medieval languages of Iberia, Gallia and Italia (Anglo-Norman, Old Spanish, etc.). The Latin of Africa, Sardinia and the easternmost parts of the Empire exhibited different mergers.”
{e,i} → j / C_V when unstressed
{e,ai} → ɛ
{i,eː,oi} → e
iː → i
o → ɔ
{u,oː} → o
uː → u
aː → a
m → n / _# “(in certain common monosyllabic words, as well as some common compounds of them)”
m → ∅ / _#
h → ∅
w → β
ɛ ɔ → e o / when unstressed
j → ʝ / #_V
j → ʝː / V_V
“In contrast, Romanian exhibits u, uː → u (and ultimately also ɔ, oː → o); and Sardinian and African Latin underwent a straight merger of the vowels by length without considering quality (e, eː → e; i, iː → i; u, uː → u; etc.)”
Mecislau
NB: Due to problems when the board migrated to a different system, a lot of the special characters were replaced with 〈?〉. In many cases these have been replaced with 〈∅〉 because it was likely that this was what was meant, but conditional 〈?〉 has either been left alone or attempted to have been filled in from context. In some cases, conditional 〈?〉 may have been used to mark stress or syllable boundaries. Take such changes with a grain of salt and use at your own risk.
h → ∅
n → ∅ / _s
{m,n,t} → ∅ / _#
V → ∅ / ”V%C_L(C)V(C)# (irregular)
V → ∅ / ”V%L_C(C)V(C)# (irregular)
V → ∅ / ”V%s_t(C)V(C)# (irregular)
u → w → ∅ / (“when in unstressed penult or between first and tonic syllables; irregular”)
iː → i / stressed
iː → i / _%”V
{i,eː} e → {e,ɛ} {ɛ,e} / stressed
{i,eː,e} → e / _%”V
i → j / ”V_#
uː → u / stressed
uː → u / _%”V
au → a / _%”u
{u,oː} o → o ɔ / stressed
{u,o(ː)} → u / _%”V in East Catalan
{u,o(ː)} → o / _%”V else
u → w / ”ɛ_#
aː → a
oe → {e,ɛ}
ae au → e ɔ / stressed
ae au → e o / _%”V
o → u / _a
o → u / _%”V (irregular)
VV → Vː (“For outcomes of word-final vowels, see down below”)
ndj → ɲ
dj → dʒ → ʒ
∅ → e / #_sC
l → ∅ / {o,u}_CV
l → w / V_CV (“although l was usually restored later”)
mn → nː → ɲ
p b t d k ɡ → β {β,w} ∅ {j,w} ɣ {j,∅,ɡ} / V_rV
ŋ → ɲ / _{i,e}
p b → b w / V_lV (the latter is irregular)
{kl,ɡl} → ʎ / V_V (the latter is irregular)
sk → ʃ / V_{i,e}
p k → ∅ j / V_tV
k → ∅ / Vn_tV
ks → ʃ / V_V
k → j / _s#
ɡn tj → ɲ ∅ / V_V
stj → ʃ
tj → s / C_
sj ssj jn → js jʃ ɲ / V_V
mnj → {mni,ɲ} / V_V
lj rj kj ɡj → ʎ jr ts ʒ / V_V
{bj,vj} → wʒ / _%”V
b → v / V̈%_j
ja → je / #_ (irregular)
V → ∅ / _%”V (rare)
∅ → {e,o} / CL_#
∅ → {e,o} / rː_#
a → e / “in the penult”
V → ∅ / ”V%_(C)(C)V(C)# (“irregular; e is kept before n”)
b → v / V_V
p t → b d / V_V
f → v / V_V (irregular)
s → z / ”V%V_V
s → ∅ / V_V%”V
k ɡ → ∅ {∅,ʒ} / V_{i,e} (ɡ → ʒ is learned)
ɡ → ∅ / V_V%”V
k j → ɡ ʒ / V_V
“These next two changes are awkward - Basically, when the final vowel drops off down below, the newly-final d should become w; BUT d should also have become z and disappeared before the final vowels drop off, leaving a dilem[m]a... I’m not certain how this should be [interpreted]”
— d → z → ∅ / V_V
— d → w / _V#
iː → ∅ / _#
{i,e(ː),ae} → ∅ / _(C)#
{u(ː),o(ː)} → ∅ / _#
V → ∅ / “between first and tonic syllables; except when C_CC, _n”; “if there are multiple vowels between the initial and tonic syllables, the vowel directly before the tonic is usually dropped” ! V = a
w → ∅ / u_#
j ɡj ts z n → tʃ i w s ∅ / _#
t → ∅ / V_sV
{b,v} → w / V_#
d → t / _#
l → ʎ / #_
k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
ɡ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
j → dʒ → ʒ / #_
kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e}
kʷ → k / C_V
kʷ → ɡ / V_{i,e}
kʷ → k / #_a%”V
kʷ → ɡw / V_a
kʷ → kw / #_”a
ɡʷ → ɡw / #_a
ɡʷ → ɡ / C_{i,e}
ɡʷ → ɡw / C_a
b → m → ∅ / Vm_V
n → r → br / m_
k → w / V_rV
{b,v} → w / V_tV
ɡ → ∅ / V_dV
lː nː → ʎ ɲ
ʎ → l / ”i_
C → ∅ / C1_C2 ! C2 = L
{a,o} → ∅ / #_ (rare)
ɔ → o / _N$C
e → ɛ / _v
o → u / _{ɲ,nk,ŋ} when stressed
e → i / _{nk,ŋ} when stressed (irregular)
aj → ej → ee → e (irregular)
aj → ej / _ʃ when stressed (irregular)
ɛj ɔj → jɛj uei / i {u,ui} / stressed
ɛ → e / ! _{rː,l,rC[-labial],nr} or _ ? w#
e → ɛ (in Eastern Catalan)
pharazon
NB: The vowels here marked 〈ó〉 and 〈ò〉 seem to have had some sort of open-close distinction similar to /o ɔ/.
Vulgar Latin:
— h → ∅
— V0V0 → V0ː
— n → ∅ / _{f,v,s}
— r → s / _s
— {m,n} → ∅ / _# in polysyllables
— m → n / _#
— u → ∅ / CC_V
— w → ɡu / “from Germanic loanwords”
— V → ”V / ”VSr_
— V → ”V / _C*”{i,e}V
— {i,e} → j / _V
Stressed vowels:
— aː → a
— (a)e → è
— {eː,i,oe} → é
— iː oː → i ó
— o → ò
— u → ó / !_iː
— uː → u
Initial vowels (first vowel of a word):
— aː → a
— {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e
— iː → i
— {o(ː),u} → o
Final vowels:
— aː → a
— {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e
— iː oː → i o
— u(ː) → o / except _V (?)
k ɡ → tj dj / _E
è → iɛ / in U[+open]
è → iɛ / _C#
è → ɛ / in U[+closed]
ò → uo → uɛ / in U[+open] ! _N
ò → ɔ / in U[+closed]
dj → dʒ / r_
d → ∅ / _j
j → ∅ / V_”E
j tj → dʒ ts / #_
j → dʒ / V_V (rare)
∅ → s / t_j
t → s / s_j
{ɡn,nj} → ɲ
nk → ɲ / _t
V → ∅ / in the unstressed penult
V → ∅ / intertonic ! V = a
a → ə / intertonic
∅ → b / m_{r,l}
∅ → d / {n,l,ɲ,z_r
∅ → t / s_r
k ɡ → t d / {n,r}_r
n → r / {ɡ,p}_
“[T]wo obstruents in contact with different voicing assimilate to the voicing of the second”
C → ∅ / C1_C2 ! C2 = {r,l}
t → s / _{n,m}
{kl,ɡl,lj} → ʎ
{p,b} {t,d} → v ð / V_{V,r}
v → ∅ / V_B
p → b / _l
ð → ∅ / _r
(t)s → (d)z / V_V
k → js / V_sV
k → j / _s#
{k,ɡ} → ∅ / V_B
{k,ɡ} → ∅ / B_a
{k,ɡ} → j / _{a,C}
kʷ → {v,u} / V_E
kʷ → j{v,u} / V_a
“[N]ote that the [following] clusters are the only case where a consonant does not receive intervocalic treatment before /j/”:
— (k)kj → ts
— ɡ → ∅ / _j
— pj → tʃ
— {b,v}j → dʒ
— m{ɲ,j} → ndʒ
V”e → ”Vi
V0V0 → V0
∅ → e / #_sC
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _a
t → ∅ / {ʃ,s}
d → ∅ / _{z,ʒ}
ɛ ɔ → iɛ uɛ / _{Cj,jC}
∅ → j / {ʃ,ʒ,sj,zj}”{a,é}_ in U[+open]
sːj zj rj → jsː jz jr
j → ∅ / s_ (sː_?)
ɛ → ɛa / _l{C,#}
l → u / _{C,#}
l → ∅ / {i,u}_
{lːe,lːo} → u / {e,o}_# “[this is actually an analogical development, but it applies as regularly as a sound law]”
(ɛ)au → ɔ
é → ɛi / in U[+open]
é → ɛ / in U[+closed]
ó → ou → ɛu / in U[+open]
ó → ɔ / _N
ó → ou / in U[+closed]
e → ə / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+open]
e → ɛ / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+closed] or _V (?)
o → {ou,ɔ} “(the outcome fluctuates, but ɔ is often the result of analogy rather than strict sound change; always ou before another vowel)”
a → ə / #{tʃ,dʒ}_(%…)” in U[+open]
a → ɛ / in U[+open] “(but a following ʎ creates a [closed] syllable)”
kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ
C0C0 → C0
t → ∅ / V_#
ɛ → i / _C(C…)i#
V → ∅ / _# “(except in monosyllables or after another vowel)” ! V = a
a → ə
V → ə / _{CC,tʃ,dʒ} ! _{nt,nɡ,mp,rt,rd}
s → ∅ / _C
{p,b} → ∅ / _{t,d}
v → ∅ / _C
v → ∅ / C_
ð → ∅
uɛ → ɛu
ai → e / _#
ai iɛɪ → ɛ i
ou ɛu u uɛi → u œ y yi
{ei,ɔi} → oi / C[-nas]
ɔ → u / _”V
V[-high] → ə → ∅ / _V “(except that a is kept before o)”
ɲ → in / _{C,#}
V{n,m} / V[+nas] / _{C,#}
ɛ̃ → ã
{aı̃,eı̃} → ɛ̃
ỹ → œ̃
O[+voiced] → O[-voiced] / _#
{t,s} → ∅ / _#
k → ∅ / V[+nas]_#
{n,m} → ∅ / C_#
j → ∅ / {ʃ,ʒ}_V[-nas]
ʎ r → j ʁ
oi → wɛ → wa
oı̃ → wɛ̃
“([pharazon has] omitted the loss of ə in various contexts, since it often resurfaces)”
Dewrad, from Boyd-Bownam, P. From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts
NB: Dewrad says, “It should be noted that due to my source they are not in any sort of chronological order, nor do they indicate some of the more sporadic changes.”
r → ∅ / a_ju#
tVk → dʒ / unstressed
au → u / #_ (sporadically, e.g. audire → udire)
au → o
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
kVl → kːj / unstressed
kt → tː
ɛ → jɛ / unstressed ! _{dʒ,ʎ,ɲ}
ɡ → ∅ / a_V
j → dʒ / #_
j → dʒ / V_V
{dj,ɡj} lj {nj,ɡn} → dʒ ʎ ɲ
ɔ → uo / stressed ! j_ or _{dʒ,L}
b → v / V_
l → j / #C_
C → Cː / V_jV
sj → dʒ
{t,d,k,m,n,s} → ∅ / _#
r → ∅ / _# (in polysyllables only)
taːte → ”ta / _#
t k → d ɡ / V_r
{skj,stj,sːj → ʃ
tj ks w → ts sː ɡw
Mecislau
NB: Due to problems when the board migrated to a different system, a lot of the special characters were replaced with 〈?〉. In many cases these have been replaced with 〈∅〉 because it was likely that this was what was meant, but conditional 〈?〉 has either been left alone or attempted to have been filled in from context. In some cases, conditional 〈?〉 may have been used to mark stress or syllable boundaries. Take such changes with a grain of salt and use at your own risk. Further, Mecislau gives some dual-output changes, which distinguish between vulgar and “semi-learned” outcomes.
h → ∅
rs → sː
n → ∅ / _s
V0V0 → V0ː
V → ∅ / ”V%L(C)(C)V(C)# (irregular)
V → ∅ / _L(C)(C)V(C)# (irregular)
V → ∅ ”V%s_t(C)V(C)# (irregular)
u → w / _V (between first and stressed syllables)
w → u / _”V
w → ∅ / _V
au → a / _%”u
au → o
e → iː / ”_%ɪː#
iː {i,eː} e → i e ɛ / stressed
iː {i,e(ː)} → i e / _%”V
iː → ∅ / {k,s}_#
{i(ː),e(ː),ae} → e / _#
uː → u
uiː → ui / _#
{u,oː} o → o ɔ / stressed
{u,o(ː)} → o / _%”V
{u(ː),o(ː)} → o → u / _#
aː oe → a e
ae → ɛ / stressed
ɛ ɔ → e o / _(”u)#
{olt,okt} → ujt → ut
aɫ → o
ɫ → w / V_Ca
o → u / _(”V)
e → ∅ / el_#
V → a / _{n,r}(C)V(C)# (irregular)
V → V[+nas] / _N$C when stressed
ɔ̃ → õ
N → ∅ / V[+nas]_$C ! C = S
V → V[+nas] / _N$V
V → V[+nas] / #N_ (rare)
N → ∅ / V[+nas]_$V
{ã,ãe,õe} → ão / _#
V[+nas] → V[-nas] / unstressed
V[+nas] → V[-nas] / in U#
V0[+nas]V0[-nas] → V0[+nas]
ı̃ → iɲ
e V → o ∅ / _? (irregular)
e → o / _m”V (irregular)
V → ∅ / _”V (irregular)
e → ∅ / {l,n,r,s,k}_#
e → ∅ / ”{i,e}_#
e → i / _(C)(C)V(C)#
{e,i} → ∅ / {l,m,r}_ when between #U and U[+stress]
{e,i} → ∅ / k_t when between #U and U[+stress]
o → ∅ / _{r,l} when between #U and U[+tonic]
“[I]f there are multiple vowels between the initial and tonic syllables, the vowel directly before the tonic is dropped”
k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
k → ɡ / #_{a,r} (rare)
ɡ → ɡʲ → dʲ → dʒ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
j → dʒ → ʒ / #_
pl → {ʃ,pr} / #_
l → r / b_
fl → {ʃ,fr} / #_
{fl,skl} → ʃ
nɡi → ɲ
s → ʃ / V_C[-voiced]V
s → ʒ / V_C[+voiced]V
kl → kʎ → tʃ → ʃ / #_
{kl,ɡl} → ʎ
ɡ → ∅ / #_l
kʷ → kw / #_”a
kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e,o}
kʷ → ɡ / V_{i,e}
kʷ → k / VC_{a,i,e}
kʷ → ɡw / V_a
ɡʷ → ɡw / #_
ɡʷ → ɡw / C_a
b → v / V_{V,r}
d → ∅ / V_V
ɡ → {∅,ʒ} / V_{i,e} (ɡ → ʒ is learned)
ɡ → j / V_r
pl bl p t → br {br,l} b d / V_V (bl → l is learned)
p t k → b d ɡ / V_r
p → ∅ / V_{t,s}V
k → j / V_tV
k → ∅ / Vn_tV
ks ɡn tj → ʃ ɲ {z,s} / V_V (tj → s is learned)
tj → s / C_V
dj → dʒ → ʒ / V_V
dj → dz → ts → s / r_V
ndj → nts → ns → ɲ / V_V
sj → jʒ / V_V
j → ∅ / i_ʒV
sːj (m)nj lj rj → jʃ ɲʎ jr / V_V
kj → ts → s / V_V
ɡj → {ʒ,j} / V_V (ɡj → j is learned)
pj {bj,vj} → jb jv / V_V
mj → jm (irregular)
C0C0 → C0 / ! C = r
C → ∅ / C1_C2 ! C2 = L
k → j / _s#
f → v / V_V (irregular)
s l → z ∅ / V_V
a → ∅ / ”ɔ_#
sk k → jʃ z / V_{i,e}
k → ɡ / V1_V2 ! V2 = ɔ
j → {∅,ʒ} / V_V (j → ʒ is learned)
b → v / VL_V
m → ∅ / _n
{e,i} → ∅ / {L,N}_(C)(C)V(C)#
o → ∅ / _(C)(C)V(C)#
e → j / {a,o,u}_
a → e / _j when stressed
o → u / _ɲ when stressed
V0V0 → V0 (irregular)
d → ∅ / V_V (in Portugal)
Pogostick Man, from Grandgent, Charles Hall (1905), An outline of the phonology and morphology of old Provençal, Revised Edition
NB: Use at your own peril. Trying to put a chronology to this is sort of like what I imagine undergoing a root canal would be like, as is figuring out the conditioning on a lot of these things because of the convention Grandgent uses. Nevertheless, I have triedâand probably largely failed. In any case the sections regarding the development of the vowels are placed first, because the source does that and other Romance changes posted here do similarly, and the grouping of the consonants is in large part informed by the surce. Also, I use % here to denote a syllable boundary because I didn’t want to have to open yet another window so I could throw a sigma into my document.
Stress shift: Secondary stress shifts to two syllables away from the penult. If the secondary tonic precedes the tonic, that vowel is considered stressed for the purpose of subsequent sound changes, and at some point the intervening vowel drops. Vowel changes assume the changes in Vulgar Latin as listed elsewhere in this thread.
VN → Vː / _S (except for the prefixes con-, in-); I’m assuming this change happened in Vulgar Latin and then vowel length went to quality
STRESSED VOWELS
— ɪ → e
— ʊ → o (this change seems to have happened later, hence is listed separately)
— ɔ → y / _{u,P,k,ɡ,i} (in northwestern dialects)
— ɔ → ɥe / _{u,P,k,ɡ,i} (in western dialects, Limousin, and Auvergne)
— ɔ → ɥo / _{u,P,k,ɡ,i} (in Languedoc)
— ɔ → {ɥe,ɥo,ɔ} / _{u,P,k,ɡ,i} (in southern dialects)
— a → a / _N (Rouergue, Limousin, Auvergne, Dauphiné)
— a → a / _# in monosyllables and oxytones (Rouergue, Limousin, Auvergne, Dauphiné)
— a → å (I have no idea what is going on here. Grandgent seems to distinguish an open and close /a/, and I have listed his open a as /å/, which seems to have been distinct from /ɔ/, but beyond this section it doesn’t really seem to matter very much)
— å ɛ ɔ → a e o / _N (in Limousin and neighboring regions, the last two particularly in Limousin, Languedoc, and Gascon, though when _ɲ this change may have been blocked)
— ɛ ɔ → jɛ wɔ (intermittent, “least common in the southwest”)
— e → i / _V (and possibly V_?)
— e → i / _(C…)i{C(C…)V,#}
— ɛ → jɛ / _{u,i,ʎ,rʲ,ʃ,ʒ,j,tʃ,dʒ} (except in some northern and western dialects, or if this u ← l or if this i ← ð)
— ju → jeu
— o → y / _{tʃ,dʒ,it,id} (did not occur in Dauphiné)
— o → y / _ɲ (in northern and western dialects)
— o → y / _i# (in Bordeaux, Auvergne, and some of Languedoc)
— ɔ → {ɔ,we} (in southwestern dialects)
— u → y
— o → u (during the literary period)
UNSTRESSED VOWELS
— E → ∅ / _e
— B → ∅ / _o
— E → j (presumably in the vicinity of another vowel)
— V → ∅ (though /a/ seemed to resist this)
INITIAL-SYLLABLE VOWELS
— {a,œ,e,i} → e (here, 〈œ〉 denotes the reflex of the Latin vowel written this way, not a front rounded vowel)
— u → o
— au → a / _(C…)u
— V → ∅ / _r (seemed to be an intermittent change)
— Lots and lots of analogical formations
INTERTONIC VOWELS
— V → ∅ (again, /a/ seemed to resist this change, which was itself generally blocked by analogy)
PENULT VOWELS
— V → ∅ / “penult of paroxytones”, though /a/ often remained “as an indistinct e”, probably /ə/
— V often remained when {tʃ,dʒ,j}_, especially if CC_, or when {(k)s,sː,sj}_
— V is retained when P_C[+dental]
— CVK → CVj (intermittent if C was a resonant)
— V → ∅ / lv_r (dialect-dependent)
— e → i / _(C…)i(C…)#
FINAL VOWELS
— (Again, /a/ seems to be a persistent exception to these)
— V → ∅ / R_(C…)
— Grandgent remarks that /i/ was probably the last vowel to drop out
— a → o in most dialects except Gascon and Languedoc; final -as remained in “Limousin and some others”
— /i/ and /u/ remain when ”V_ (then u is subject to the changes listed above—u → y, &c.)
— e u → e o / _nt#
— -os remains “in the extreme east”
— Final -i remains “as late as the 12th century” in some regions (Aude, Tarn, Aveyron, Corrèze, and some pockets of Haute-Garrone)
— Epenthesis of /e/ in 2sg “of some verbs”
— V → “indistinct e” (probably /ə/) if dropping it would create ugly consonant clusters:
—— C_L, P_C[+dental], C_tʃ, C_k, C_m, C_n where “originally separated by the vowel of the penult” (proparoxytones)
—— Ḱ_r (paroxytones)
—— Where the cluster would be unwieldy otherwise, apocope happened
—— Final /(m)bj mnj pj mj/ “required a supporting vowel” (dialect-dependent)
— V → e “in many late words”
K → ∅ / _l (not always, but this was a general change)
v → b / r_ (sporadic)
h → ∅
d → ∅ / V_V (seems to have happened in the north and northeast at some point)
b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / V_V
βj → j (in forms of habeo and debeo)
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
tʃ → ts (sometimes)
ɡ → ∅ / V_(VC…)”V
j → ∅ / V_”E
N → ∅ / _#, in polysyllables
kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / _B
rs → sː
sː → s / Vː_
p t k s → b d ɡ z / V_V (this b → v?)
∅ → i / #_sC
w → v → ∅ / _u (“restored by analogy in many words”)
w → v → ∅ / _”o
w → v → β
β → w / V_C
w → ∅ / C_B (when from earlier B?)
k → ∅ / _s{C,#} (the latter in polysyllables only)
{d,ɡ} → ∅ / _j
Loan phonemes:
— Loaned /b/ did not lenite
— Loaned /k/ did not palatalize
— Loaned w → ɡw
Original z (/ts/?) → dj → j
Greek /k/ shows up variously as /k ɡ/
pʰ → f
Some reanalysis of initials as medials if a prefixed form was reanalyzed as a single morpheme
(s)k ɡ → (s)tʃ dʒ / #_a (in the north and northeast)
tʃ → ts → s / #_
j → dʒ / #_ (but not in Béarn)
f → h (in Béarn and Gascon)
β → b (in Béarn, Gascon, and Languedoc)
β → v (though sometimes → ɡw instead if analogy interfered)
kʷ ɡʷ → kw ɡw (in western dialects)
kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ (else)
∅ → k / #s_l
i → e / #_sC
b {d,dz,dʒ} z ʒ ɡ → p {t,ts,tʃ} s ʃ k / _(s)#
tʃs → {ts,tʃ} (varies)
j → i / _(s)#
ð → ∅ / _#
ð → t / _s#
β → u / V_(s)#
β → {∅,f} / C_(s)# (the latter is rare)
n → ∅ / V_# (did not occur in extreme western areas, some northern areas, the southeast, and the east)
n → ∅ / _s# (except for eastern and southeastern dialects)
n → ∅ / r_(s)#?
kː → tʃ / _a (in the east and northeast)
lː → l (in the south)
rː~r stuff—not sure what was going on here, but it seems like this distinction lingered on into the literary period, but the two may have been in the process of merging
mn → mpn → nː (dialectal)
Cː → C
ɡ → k / B_ (your guess is probably better than mine)
ɡ → {k,j} / V_ (if /j/ resulted, it dropped after /i/; forms with k are “most persistent in the west” and more common overall)
l → w / V_s
ms ns → mps nts (sporadic?)
{p,b} → ∅ / R_s# (unless blocked by analogy)
ts → s / _# (Provence, Limousin, some Languedoc and Gascon)
β → ∅ / when pretonic and immediately adjacent to a back vowel
β → b / V_V (in western and some central dialects)
β → v (otherwise)
tʃ → i / _C
tʃ → i / C_
tʃ → jdz → jz / V_V (in the south and northwest)
tʃ → dz → z / V_V (otherwise)
ð → i / C_
ð → i / _C ! _s#
ð → z (except in some northern and eastern dialects where → ∅)
ɡ → j / _a (in the north and east; further → dʒ in the north)
ɡ → ɡ / _{o,u/y}
ɡ → j → dʒ / “[b]etween the last two vowels of a proparoxytone”, though it dropped early in some dialects
dʒ → j
l → u / _s# (in many dialects)
s → r / _n (in a few dialects)
j → dʒ / _”E (in the west)
j → ∅ / _”E (else)
j → i / _C
j → dʒ / V_V (did not occur in the northeast and some northern dialects)
β → u / _l
{t,d}l {k,ɡ}l → lː ʎ
∅ → b / m_l
p j → b i / _l
p k tʃ b ɡ β j → b ɡ i {b,u,u→y→i} ∅ {u,u→y→i} i / _r
{t,d} → ð → i / _r
ð → ∅ / au_
∅ → d / z_r
∅ → b / m_r
∅ → t / s_r
βw tw → wː dw → ɡʷ ɡʷ → ɡ ɡ
{d,k}w → ɡʷ → ɡ
(kʷ → ɡʷ → ɡ ?)
{l,r}w {n,ŋk,ŋɡ}w → lɡʷ ŋɡʷ → lɡ ŋɡ
pw → upw → up → ub
w → ∅ / s_ ?
βj → {udʒ,uj} (in northern dialects)
β → u / _j (in western dialects)
β → {b,v} / _j (in southern and eastern dialects)
ktj klj → is ʎ
{tʃ(ː),kʷ}j → ts
dVɡ (n)dVɡ → dʒ(?) ndʒ
l{tj,tʃj} ldʒ → lts ldz → uts udz → us uz
lː{j,Vdʒ} lnj → ʎ ɲ
lvj → lbj → ubj
j → ∅ / n_# (in many dialects)
nj → ɲ
mbj → {mbj,mdʒ,ndʒ}
mnj → ɲ (Limousin, as well as extreme eastern and southwest dialects)
mnj → ndʒ (else)
mj → {mj,ɲ}
{ntʃj,ndj} → nts → ns
{ndj,ndʒj} ndʒ → ɲ {ɲ,ndʒ}
p → b / _rj
ptj → ts → s
pj → ptʃ → tʃ (except in western and some southern dialects)
rtʃj → rts (→ rs ?)
rdj rVɡ → rdz rdʒ
rdʒ → {rdʒ,rdz(→ rz)}
rtj → rts → rs
rːVɡ rːj → rdʒ ir
rtVɡ → {rdʒ,rts(→ rs)}
rtj → rts → rs
v → {v,b} / r_j
rj → rʲ → ir / V_V
rj → rʲ → r / _#
{sːj,stʃj,stj} → ʃ → is (except in the west or extreme east, where the outcome was some flavor of (i)(t)ʃ)
sj → ʒ → (i)(d)ʒ (in some northeastern, northern, and western dialects)
sj → ʒ → {r,z} (rare)
sj → ʒ → iz (the usual outcome)
tVɡ trj → dʒ ir
tːj → ts → s
tj → tʃ → dj → djʒ (?) → dz (in the north and west) or idz (in the south and east)—medial (i)dz became (i)z; i-less forms “prevail in the literary language” and seem to have become common if the dz follows the stress
l → u / _{t,s} (Languedoc)
l → u / _{d,s} (Rouergue)
l → u / _{t,d,s} (else)
ndt ndtʃ ntʃ nkt nf → n{d,t} {nts,ndz(→ nz),ndʒ} n(t)s {ɲ,(i)nt,ntʃ} {nf,fː(→ f)}
nt nd → {∅,n} ∅ / _# (in some Languedoc and Gascon areas)
nd → n / _# (in western areas and for some speakers of Limousin)
d → t / n_#
rtʃ rdtʃ → r(t)s {rdz(→ rz),rts,rdʒ}
rdɡ → r{ɡ,dʒ} / _a
t → ∅ / rd_
t → ∅ / r_m (sometimes)
stʃ → s (in some northern and northeastern dialects)
stʃ → (i)(t)ʃ (for western and extreme eastern regions)
stʃ → is (otherwise)
k → ∅ / s_b (sporadic?)
{p,t} → ∅ / s_m (sporadic?)
p → ∅ / s_t
stɡ → s{ɡ,dʒ}
bk → pts / _a
b → {∅,u} / _rɡ
b → ∅ / _s{t,k}
b → {∅,b} / _t
b → ∅ / _ts
β → u / _k
βtʃ → u{ts,dz} → u{s,z}
βt βd → pt bd (in the west)
βt βd → ut ud (else)
ktʃ → (i)tʃ (in western and extreme eastern dialects)
ktʃ → its → is (else)
tʃ k → {i,s} {∅,k} / _m
kt ɡd → it id (in the north, northeast, and southwest)
{tʃ,k}t ɡd → tʃ dʒ (else)
dtʃ → ts (in Auvergne and some western areas)
dtʃ → dʒ (for some southeastern and southwestern speakers)
dtʃ → dz → z (else)
ɡ → ∅ / _m
ɡn{d,t} → ŋn{d,t} → ɲ{d,t} → {(i)nd,ɲd,ndʒ} or t(ʃ)
ɡn → ŋn → ɲ
ksk → stʃ / _a (in the north and northeast)
k → ∅ / _sk (else)
ks → ʃ → s / _m
ksː → is
p → ∅ / _f
pk → ptʃ / _a
The outcome of ps varied; some dialects preserved it, while others changed it to (i)ʃ (typical of the west), us (the east), or is
pt → {ut,it} “in a few words”
p → ∅ / _t “except in parts of Languedoc and Gascony”
td → tː → t
jd → {dʒ,id}
Some dialects dropped all final k, while others only dropped it when B_#, changing it to i when {a,E}_#
{d,l} → ∅ / _#
t → ∅ / _# ! “in the preterit of verbs”, though it tended to drop “in strong preterits”
The outcome of final nt was usually n, but in the extreme north and some areas of the south, the full cluster was kept as part of the ending -ant; further, “in some dialects the n fell after o, u”
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Rhaeto-Romance languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhaeto-Romance_languages&oldid=607581179>
NB: These are probably very incomplete and too general, but they seem to be the key distinguishing features of Rhaeto-Romance.
ɛ e → ej je
a → e / stressed, usually when Ḱ_
uː → y (→ i in most descendants, with the exception of Engadine)
a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _a (note the similarity with some varieties of Old Provençal)
/pl fl kl/ preserved
Germanic loaned /w/ preserved—i.e., it did not become /ɡw/
C[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (only for obstruents?)
C[- voiced] → C[+ voiced] / V_V
Final /s/ preserved
pharazon, from Jensen, A Comparative Study of Romance, as well as other sources
h → ∅
V0V0 → V0ː
n → ∅ / _{f,v,s}
r → s / _s
{m,n,s} → ∅ / _# in polysyllables
m s → n i / _#
u → ∅ / CC_V
V → ”V / ”VSr_
V → ”V / _(C…)”{i,e}V
“Stressed vowels (note the difference from the French development)”:
— aː → a
— (a)e → ɛ
— eː,i,oe → e
— iː o(ː) u(ː) → i o u
Word-initial vowels:
— aː → a
— {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e
— iː → i
— {o(ː),u} → o
Word-final vowels:
— aː → a
— {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e / _#
— iː → i
— {o(ː),uː} → o
— u → o / ! V_
s → i / #(C…)V_#
k → ∅ / _s#
{s,t} → ∅ / _#
kʷ ɡʷ → p b / V_a
ɡ → m / _n
w → ∅ / {k,ɡ}_
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
ɛ → ie
t d s → ts dz ʃ / _i
o e → u i / _N
a → ɨ _N ! _{nː,mn}
i → ∅ / OL_e
e → a / i_(C…){a,e}#
i → ∅ / {ts,dz,S}_V
li → lj / _V
l → lj / _i
lː → ∅ / _i
”elːa → e”a / _#
{b,v} → ∅ / V_{V,t}
l → r / V_V
m → u / a_nV
b → u / V_{l,r}
p → ∅ / _s
c → p / _{s,t}
{sc,st} → ʃt / _F
s → ʃ / _kl
c → ∅ / n_t
kj ɡj → tʃ {j,∅} (ɡj → ∅ is rare)
Pj → ɥ
{sj,stj,sːj} → ʃ
j → s / t_
j → z / rd_
dj → ʒ / _”B
dj → z / V_V
{n,l} → ∅ / _j
ja → e / r_#
j → ∅ / r_
d → ∅ / _z
l → j / {k,ɡ}_
a → e / C[+palatal]_#
a o → ə u / ”U…_#
e → ə / ”U…P_(C…)V# ! V = i
u → ∅ / o_e
e → ə / ou_#
u → ∅ / ! {OL,”V}_#
a → a / #(C…)V…C[+palatal]_…”U
a o → ə u / #(C…)V…_…”U
e → i / #(C…)V…_n…”U
e → ə / #(C…)V…{t,d,n}_…”U
e → ə / P”_(C…)B
e → ∅ / P_a
e → ə / #{r,P}_…”U
o → u / #C…_…”U
a → ə #C(C…)_…”U
{t,d} → ∅ / n_#
Ci → Cʲ / _# ! R…R_#
qwed117, “mainly” from http://www.sardegnacultura.it/documenti/7_25_20060427093224.pdf
Vː → V[- long]
e → i / C_V
i → j / V_V
i → j / _V
{b,v,w} → ∅ / V_V
au ai → o e
h → ∅ / {#,C}_
m → ∅ / _#
∅ → i / _s (“[m]ainly Logudorese”)
nd {lː,ld} → ɳɖ ɖː / V_V
t → k / s_l (sporadic)
l → ∅ / rk_ (sporadic)
r → l / _C (sporadic)
l → r / C_ (sporadic)
{i,j} → dʒ / Vr_V (“dialectal”)
v → b / #_
S[- voice] → S[+ voice] / V_”V
kw ɡw → pː bː / #_ (“[o]nly Logudorese”)
w → ∅ / #k_V
k → ts / _i
{p,k}s → sː
o → u / _k (possibly restricted in occurrence)
k → ∅ / _t ?
l{i,j} → lː → {ts,dz,ldz,dʒ,lː} (“varies”)
e → ∅ / u_#
t → d / V_rV
sk → sː
{i,j} → ɡ / #_e
d → ∅ / V_{i,j}
n{i,j} t{i,j} → ndʒ ts / _V
d → r / V_V (“[s]ome Campidanese”)
b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / “except in Nuorese”
ɡn → nː
r → urː / #_e / Logudorese
r → arː / #_(j)B / Logudorese
? and Serafı́n, the former citing Penny, Ralph (2002), A History of the Spanish Language, 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press; and Lipski, John (1994), Latin American Spanish. Longman Pub Group.
b → β / V_V
{tj,kj} {tːj,kːj,ptj,ktj,skj} → ts tːs
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ → ts dz / _{j,i,e,ɛ}
{t,k} → ∅ / _#
V → ∅ / C_{r,l} when unstressed and not at a word boundary
V → ∅ / {r,l}_C when unstressed and not at a word boundary
V → ∅ / C_s when unstressed and not at a word boundary (sporadic)
V → ∅ / s_C when unstressed and not at a word boundary (sporadic)
{k,ɡ} → x → j / _{t,s,n,l}
pt {ɾs,ps} → tː sː
ns → s (with a few exceptions)
mb mn → mː nː
{jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː
bj → ʝː (sporadic)
Raising of e {ɛ,a} ɔ o → i e o u; near j, in particular environments:
— e → i / _Cj ! C = p
— ɛ ɔ u → e o u / _(C)j
— a → e / _j
oj → we (sporadic)
ɛ ɔ → je we
”je.o ”je.a → {”i.o,”jo} ”i.a
jt js → tʃ ʃ
f → h / ! _{ue,L}
ɾj pj → jɾ jp / V_
ʎ → ʒ
ʝ → {∅,ʒ} (the latter is rare)
ʝː → ∅ / E_
d → {∅,ð} / V_V
ɡ → {∅,ɣ} / V_V
p t k s ts → b d ɡ z dz / V_V
pː tː kː sː tːs ʝː → p t k s ts ʝ
nː lː ɾɾ → ɲ ʎ r
kl pl → ʎ {ʎ,tʃ}
fl → ʎ (sporadic)
V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a
sj → js / V_
i u → e o / _(C)#
Vɾ → ɾV / C_#
e → ∅ / V{d,s,n,l,ɾ}_#
d ɡ → ð ɣ / V_V
/ʝ/ “gains a fortified [dʒ] allophone” by analogy with the voiced-stop/voiced-fricative allophony in Spanish
“Complex resolution of many consonant clusters created with the previous loss of unstressed vowels”:
“With deletion or assimilation or both”:
— t → ∅ / _m
— d → ∅ / _n (sometimes)
— mn → ɲ (sometimes)
— tst dzd → ts dz
— Vdz → ∅ / {nts,ndz,rdz_
— ndzVɡ → nɡ
— mpVt skVp spVt stVk → nt sp st sk
“With dissimilation”:
— n → {l,ɾ} / _m
— n → {ɾ,l} / nɡ_
— n → ɾ / nd_
“With metathesis”:
— dn dl → nd ld
— ml nɾ → lm ɾn (sometimes)
— βɣ → wɣ → ɣw
“With epenthesis”:
— ∅ → b / m_ɾ
— mn ml → mbɾ mbl
— ∅ → d / n_ɾ
t → ∅ / _#
/b/ [b], /β/ [b~β] → /b/ [b~β]
b → u / _C
l → u / _C (sometimes)
ts dz → s̪ z̪
z̪ z ʒ → s̪ s ʃ
ʃ → {x,χ}
“None of the following sound changes is universal to all dialects. If the same sound appears twice or more with an apparent contradiction, this accounts for different dialects. In all cases there are dialects that conserve the original sound at the beginning of the 21st century, with the exception of the old phonemic [s̪ - s] distinction (though kept in another way today, as [θ - s] in many parts of Spain).”
h → ∅ “(just a reminder: from the f → h change above)”
x → h
/dɾ/ [ðɾ] → ɾ / V_V
ʎ → /ʝ/ (“merged with”)
ʎ → j
/ʝ/ [ʝ~dʒ] → [ʒ~dʒ]
ʒ → ʃ
{s̪,s} → /s/ [s̪] “(merged as)”
{s̪,s} → h / _$
{s̪,s} → h “(in all environments)”
s̪ → θ
{s̪,s} → θ [θ] “(merged as)”
h → ∅ / _d
h → ∅ / _tʰ
h → ∅ / _$
n → ŋ / _#
b ɡ → β ɣ / {l,ɾ}_
d → ð / ɾ_
tɾ → {tɾ̥,tʃ,tʂ}
r → {ʐ,χ}
l → ɾ / _$
ɾ → l / _$
s → ɾ / _θ
kθ → θː
Pogostick Man, from http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_C.pdf and http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_V.pdf
NB: This is likely incomplete.
t → f
ḱ ɡ́ kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ p b
{ɡ́ʰ,x} {ɸ,θ,ɡʷʰ} → h f
r̥ → er / _#
eu → ou
Pogostick Man, from http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_C.pdf and http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_V.pdf
NB: This is likely incomplete.
z → r
Pogostick Man, from http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_C.pdf and http://gillesquentel.org/docs/PIE_to_Italic_V.pdf
NB: This is likely incomplete.
d → rs / V_V
Nortaneous, from http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/tokol-TC-X.html and https://azargoshnasp.net/history/Tocharian/positionoftocharian.pdf
Ḱ → K
Ch → C / _(V)Ch
d → ∅ / _N
dz → ∅ / B_
dz → ts
Kʷ → K / _{C,o,a} ! C = syllabic
Kʷ → ɕ / _e(ː)
Kʷy → ɕ
p {ts,k(ʷ)} m n l r y → pj sʲ ʂ mj ɲ lj rj wj / _{E(:),y}
{t,dʱ} → tʲ / _E(ː)
{t,dʱ} → ts / _y
D(ʱ) → T
n̩ → ə → ∅ / C_#
R H → uR ɨ / C_{C,#} when syllabic
R Hn̩ → ɛR ɨn / #_C
H → ɛ / _R, when R = syllabic
H → ∅ / V_V
h2e → ə / _#
h2e a → a ɨ
{eh2,aH} aː → aː ɔ
h3e o → o ɛ
{eh3,oH} → oː
oː(s,y) oːn → u {u,õ}
Something about *õ and umlaut
õ oː → o a
u → wə / #_
u → {ə,u}
uh1 u{h2,h3} → uː → wə wɨ
i → ə / {P,K(ʷ),s}_
Ci → Cʲə
s → sʲ / _tʲ
ih1 i{h2,h3} → jə jɨ
(h1)e (h1)eː → jə jɛː / #_
Ce Ceː → Cʲə Cʲɛ
eH → eː
ow aw ew → ɛu au əw
oy ay ey → ɛi ai əj
ɛ → o / _$B
ɛ → ə / _$ɨ
”ɨ ”ə ɨ[- stress] ə[- stress] → ɨ a a ə
Nortaneous, from http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/tokol-TC-X.html and https://azargoshnasp.net/history/Tocharian/positionoftocharian.pdf
s → ʂ / _t
k → p / _{s,ʂ}
Cʲj → Cʲː
n → j / V_sV ! E_
V → j / V_nʲtʲ ! V = E
j → ∅ / w_
{a,ɛ}i əj → e i
{a,ɛ}u əw → o u
{ɔ,ɛ} → a
V → [+ round] / Kʷ_
{kʷ,kw} → k
ə → ∅ / _%
V → ∅ / _#
“[E]penthesis [of /ə/] to break up ‘difficult’ consonant clusters (mostly in the coda?)”
Nortaneous, from http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/tokol-TC-X.html and https://azargoshnasp.net/history/Tocharian/positionoftocharian.pdf
{a,ɛ}u əw → au u
{a,ɛ}i əj → ai i
ɔ ɛ → o e
w → ∅ / _j
Kʷ “usually but not always retained”
C[+ coronal]w → Cː
mn → nm / V_V
s → ∅ / n_#
∅ → t / {N,L}_S
ə → ∅ / _%, when unstressed
“[E]penthesis [of /ə/] to break up ‘difficult’ consonant clusters (mostly in the coda?)”
Pogostick Man, from Meira, Sérgio (2005), “Reconstructing Pre-Bakairi Segmental Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 47(3):261 – 291
VNV → ṼṼ / ! _(C)#
ʔ → ∅ / _C[+ fricative - voiced]
ɾ → ∅ / V_V, when neither vowel is stressed
Pogostick Man, from Meira, Sérgio (2005), “Reconstructing Pre-Bakairi Segmental Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 47(3):261 – 291
V[- stress]NV → ṼṼ
z → h / V_a
z → ∅ / V_V
C[+ fricative - voiced] → ∅ / ʔ_
ɨ → ə / P_
ɨ → i
ʒ → ∅
ɾ → ∅ / V_V, where at least one of the vowels is nasalized
Pogostick Man, from Gudschinsky, Sarah C. (1971), “Ofai?-Xavante, a J? Language”
Vm → Ṽ / _#
VS → r / C_V
c → {c,z}
ŋʷ {kʷ,hʷ} → m p
ə → ∅ / C_CV (not sure if this happened all the time or not)
Pogostick Man, from Gudschinsky, Sarah C. (1971), “Ofaié-Xavante, a Jê Language”
m → w / _#
m → {w,p}
ɲV → jṼ
k(ʷ) → ʔ / _#
kʷ → k
ŋ → n / V_V
ŋ → j̃ / #_ (not sure if this nasalizes the following vowel or not)
ŋʷ hʷ → j̃ h
As pertains to this section, the vowels given in the form 〈{V1/V2}〉 herein may have apparently been some sort of alternation in vowel grade or quality. Also, the names of these languages were researched on the Wikipedia; they are in many cases different from the names cited within the source papers proper.
Moore and Galucio (1994) give the following inventory for Proto-Tuparí:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labiovelar | Glottal | |
| Stop | p | t | k | kʷ | ʔ | |
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ŋʷ | ||
| Fricative | β | h | ||||
| Affricate | ts (n)dz | |||||
| Liquid | r~D | j~j̃~ɲ |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i ı̃ | ɨ ɨ̃ | u ũ |
| Mid | e ẽ | ||
| Low | a ã |
*u *ũ may have actually been *o *õ, respectively. Additionally, the following ablaut pairs have been reconstructed:
*a~*e
*e~*a
*ı̃~*ẽ
(From Moore, Denny and Ana Vilacy Galucio (1994), “Reconstruction of Proto-Tupari Consonants and Vowels”. Report 8: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages: Proceeds of the Meeting of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas, July 2 – 4, 1993, and the Hokan-Penutian Workshop, July 3, 1993, 119 – 137)
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Denny and Ana Vilacy Galucio (1994), “Reconstruction of Proto-Tupari Consonants and Vowels”. Report 8: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages: Proceeds of the Meeting of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas, July 2 – 4, 1993, and the Hokan-Penutian Workshop, July 3, 1993, 119 – 137.
t → r / _”V
t → l / _V
t → ∅ / else
k → ∅ / _#
kʷ → ∅
b → β / V_V
ɡʷ → β / _V[-nas]
ts (n)dz → t nd
β → ∅ / _i
h → ∅ / V_C
ʔ → ∅
r → l / V[+nas]_V[+nas]
ð nŋʷ → c β / #_V[-nas]
ð → {∅,c} / else
j ŋʷ m n → ɲ m {m,p} {∅,t} / _V[+nas]
ⁿd ŋ → t {ɡ,k} / _V[-nas]
u → o / _{p,b}i
ɨ → ∅ / ! #_{p,β}e
{a/e} {e/a} {ı̃,ẽ} → e a ẽ
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Denny and Ana Vilacy Galucio (1994), “Reconstruction of Proto-Tupari Consonants and Vowels”. Report 8: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages: Proceeds of the Meeting of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas, July 2 – 4, 1993, and the Hokan-Penutian Workshop, July 3, 1993, 119 – 137.
t → r / _”V
ɡ → k
k → ɡ / in U[+stress]
ɡʷ → k / _o
ɡʷ ŋɡ → kʷ k / _V[-nas]
ɡʷ → kʷ / #_V[+nas]
ts (n)dz → {s,ts} s
β → ∅ / i_
h → ∅ / V_C
ʔ → ∅
{ᵐb,ⁿd,ð} → t / _V[+nas]
ð → s / _i
ð → h / else
ŋ ŋʷ → k m / _V[+nas]
ŋʷ → kʷ / #_V[-nas]
ɨ → i / #_{p,βe}
ɨ → ∅ / else
{{a/e},{e/a}} {ı̃,ẽ} → a ẽ
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Denny and Ana Vilacy Galucio (1994), “Reconstruction of Proto-Tupari Consonants and Vowels”. Report 8: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages: Proceeds of the Meeting of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas, July 2 – 4, 1993, and the Hokan-Penutian Workshop, July 3, 1993, 119 – 137.
t → r / _V
kʷ ɡ → ∅ k
ɡʷ → ∅ / _o
ɡʷ ŋɡ → β k / _V[-nas]
{(n)dz,ts} → s / _i
{(n)dz,ts} → t / else
β ð → ∅ {s,h} / _i
ð → h
ᵐb ŋʷ → p β / #_V[-nas]
n → ∅ / ! #_V[-nas]
ŋ → k / #_V[+nas]
ŋʷ → m / V[+nas]_V[+nas]
u → o / _{p,b}i
{a/e} → e
Pogostick Man, from Moore, Denny and Ana Vilacy Galucio (1994), “Reconstruction of Proto-Tupari Consonants and Vowels”. Report 8: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages: Proceeds of the Meeting of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas, July 2 – 4, 1993, and the Hokan-Penutian Workshop, July 3, 1993, 119 – 137.
p → β / V_
t → r / _”V
p t → ∅ l / _V
k → ɡ / in U[+stress]
b → ∅ / V_V
ɡʷ → ɡ / _o
bʷ → β / #_V[+nas]
ts (n)dz → t nd
h → ∅ / V_C
ʔ → ∅
r ŋʷ → n β / V[+nas]_V[+nas]
ð → (n)d
ŋɡ → k / ! _V[-nas]
u → ɨ / _{p,b}i
{a/e} {e/a} {ı̃,ẽ} → a e ı̃
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
p → k / _w
t → tʃ / _{i,ı̃}
k b r → {ŋ,∅} {w,m} {n,r,t} / _#
b → w
ts → {h,∅}
a → {ɨ,o} / _N#
o → a / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
u → ∅ / k_w
a → o / ! Cw_
ã → a / Cw_
ã → õ
{ẽ,ı̃} ɨ̃ {u,ũ,õ} → i ɨ o
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
p → k / _w
t → tʃ / _{i,ı̃}
ʔ ts ŋ → ∅ {ts,tʃ} n
∅ → i / j_#, in monosyllables
j → i / _#, in polysyllables
b → ∅ / _#
b → w / else
w → ∅ / k_w
w → u / k_
a → ∅ / _j#
eN → y / _#
e → ɨ / {k,j}_
o → u(a) / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
ã {ẽ,ı̃} ɨ̃ → a i ∅
u → ũ (? possibly backwards?)
iʔ uʔ → j w / C_V
V0ʔV0 → V0ː
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
t → ts / _{i,ı̃}
ts → {h,∅}
b → ∅ / u_#
b → w / else
u → ∅ / k_w
a → ə / _N#
a → ə / if N in U#
o → u / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
ã ẽ ı̃ ɨ̃ {õ,ũ} → ə e i ɨ o
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
m p → ŋ k / _w
t → tʃ / _{i,ı̃}
k → ∅
ts → {tʃ,∅}
{b,r} → ∅ / _#
u → ∅ / k_w
V{m,n} → V[+nas] / _#
Vŋ → V[+nas]
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
m p → ŋ k / _w
t → tʃ / _{i,ı̃}
{b,k} r → ∅ {r,∅} / _#
ʔ ts → {ʔ,∅} {ts,tʃ}
{Vm,Vŋ} Vn → V[+nas] {Vr,V[+nas]} / _#
aN eN iN ɨN uN → ã ẽ ı̃ ɨ̃ ũ / _#
õ → o
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
p → h / _{o,u,w}
t → tʃ / _{i,ı̃}
ts → {h,j,∅}
b r → p t / _#
b → w / else
ã → a / Cw_
ẽ ı̃ õ lost nasalization sometimes, kept it in others
u → õ (? possibly backwards?)
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
k → {ŋ,∅} / _#
ts → {h,∅}
Vn → V[+nas] (sometimes)
∅ → ŋ / {#,V}_w
b r → {b,∅} {r,t} / _#
u → ∅ / k_w
eN → ı̃ / _#
ẽ ı̃ ũ → {ẽ,e} {ı̃,i} {ũ,õ}
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
p → {h,∅} / _{u,o}
p → {k,∅} / _w
p → h / else
t → {ts,tʃ} / _{i,ı̃}
k → ∅ / _#
ʔ ts → ∅ {s,ʃ}
u → ∅ / k_w
V{m,n} → V[+nas] / _#
Vŋ → V[+nas]
j → {j,i} / _#
j → {ɲ,tʃ} / else
w → {ɡ,k} / {#,V}_
{b,r} → ∅ / _#
a → {∅,o,e} / _j#
o u → {u,o} {u,o,i}
aN eN iN ɨN uN → ã ẽ ı̃ {ɨ̃,ĩ} õ / _#
{ɨ̃,õ} ũ → {õ,ẽ} õ
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
t → tʃ / _{i,ı̃}
ts → {s,ʃ}
i → ı̃ / ʔ_# (sporadic)
Pogostick Man, from Anonby, Stan, and David J. Holbrook (2013), “A report and comparative-historical look at the Cinta Larga, Suruí, Gavião and Zoró languages”. Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria 23:14 – 31
p → v / _#
h → ∅ / V_ (sporadic, likely an areal feature)
Pogostick Man, from Anonby, Stan, and David J. Holbrook (2013), “A report and comparative-historical look at the Cinta Larga, Suruí, Gavião and Zoró languages”. Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria 23:14 – 31
V → Ṽ / _h
h → ∅ / V_
v → w / #_
tʃ → ʃ
Pogostick Man, from Anonby, Stan, and David J. Holbrook (2013), “A report and comparative-historical look at the Cinta Larga, Suruí, Gavião and Zoró languages”. Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria 23:14 – 31
o → u
Vh → Vː
V → Vː / _#
Pogostick Man, from Anonby, Stan, and David J. Holbrook (2013), “A report and comparative-historical look at the Cinta Larga, Suruí, Gavião and Zoró languages”. Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria 23:14 – 31
h → ∅ / V_
ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
b → m / #_
Pogostick Man, from Anonby, Stan, and David J. Holbrook (2013), “A report and comparative-historical look at the Cinta Larga, Suruí, Gavião and Zoró languages”. Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria 23:14 – 31
h → ∅ / V_
∅ → ʔ / V_#
ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
ʃ → tʃ (sporadic, areal feature from Gavião influence)
Pogostick Man, from Lemle, Miriam (1971), âInternal Classification of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family”. In Tupi Studies I, from Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields Publication Number 29.
p k → k ∅ / _w
t → ʃ / _{i,ı̃}
k → {k,∅} / _#
k → {k,ʃ} / else
ts → {s,h}
Vn → V[+nas] / _# (sometimes)
Vŋ → V[+nas]
j b → {j,i} ∅ / _#
b → w / else
u → ∅ / k_w
u → o / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
aN iN uN → {aN,ã} ı̃ {uN,ũ} / _#
ɨ̃ ẽ õ → ∅ {ẽ,e} {o,õ,u,ũ}
Wikipedia presents the following phonemic inventory for Proto-Kartvelian.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||||||
| Plosive | p pʼ b | t tʼ d | k kʼ ɡ | q qʼ | ||||
| Fricative | s z | ʃ | ʂ ʐ | x ɣ | h | |||
| Lateral Fricative | ɬ | |||||||
| Affricate | ts tsʼ dz | tʃ tʃʼ dʒ | ʈʂ ʈʂʼ ɖʐ | |||||
| Lateral Affricate | tɬʼ | |||||||
| Liquid | l r | (j) | w | |||||
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | (i) | (u) | |
| Mid | ɛ ɛː | ɔ ɔː | |
| Low | ɑ ɑː |
The presence of *j is denoted in the article on the protolanguage proper as “dubious”; the page on the language family does not include it in its list of regular correspondences, nor does it list the long vowels or *h.
(From Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Kartvelian languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kartvelian_languages&oldid=580201868>; and Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Kartvelian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Kartvelian_language&oldid=574800306>)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Kartvelian languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kartvelian_languages&oldid=580201868>
q → x
{ɬ,ʂ} → s
ʈʂ {ʈʂʼ,tɬʼ} → ts tsʼ
ɖʐ → dz
ʐ → z
w → v
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Kartvelian languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kartvelian_languages&oldid=580201868>
k kʼ → {k,tʃ} {kʼ,tʃʼ}
ɡ → {ɡ,dʒ}
ɬ ʃ ʂ → l {sɡ,ʃɡ} ʃ
tʃ ʈʂ tɬʼ tʃʼ ʈʂʼ → {tʃk,ʃɡ} tʃ h {ʃkʼ,tʃʼkʼ} tʃʼ
dz dʒ ɖʐ → {dz,z} {dʒɡ,sɡ} {dʒ,ʒ}
ʐ → ʒ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Kartvelian languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kartvelian_languages&oldid=580201868>
ɛ ɑ → ɑ ɔ
q qʼ → x {kʼ,qʼ,ʔ}
ɬ ʃ ʂ → ∅ {sk,ʃk} ʃ
tʃ ʈʂ {tɬʼ,ʈʂʼ} tʃʼʼ → tʃk tʃ tʃʼ {tsʼkʼ,tʃʼkʼ}
dʒ ɖʐ → {dʒɡ,dzɡ} dʒ
ʐ → ʒ
w → v
For the following section, all clicks change regardless of secondary articulation or associated articulations with the exception of when such is specifically noted.
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) → ǂ̃n
! → !~k
!x → x
!̬ → ɡ
!̃(n) → ŋ
ts → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s}
h → j / _E
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) → ǂ̃n
! !̬ !̃ → !~k !̬~ɡ !̃(n)~ŋɡ
!x → !x~x
ts → {ts,s}
h → j~ʔ / _E
h → h~ʔ
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) → ǂ̃
! !ˀ !̬ !̃ → k ∅ ɡ ŋɡ
!x → x
!̃n → ŋɡj~!̃
ts → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s}
h → j
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
!̃(n) → ǂ̃
! !ˀ ! !̃ → k ∅ ɡ ŋɡ
!x !̃n → x ŋɡj~!̃
ts dz → {ç,tç} dʒ
kʰ → kx
h → j
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
k → ɡ
{ǀˀ,ǀxʼ} → ǀ
ǀ̃(n) → {ǂ̃,ǂ}
! !ˀ !̃n → !ɡ ~ !̃
ǂ {ǂ̃n,ǂˀ,ǂxʼ} → ǂɡ ǂ
{ǁˀ,ǁxʼ} → ǁ
ts dz kxʼ → {ts,s} d ∅
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) → ǂ̃
ts dz → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s} dz~ts
kʰ → {kx,k}
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) → ǂ̃
! !̃n → ! !̃
ǂ̃n → ǂ
ǁˀ → {ǁˀ,ǁ}
ts → {ts,s}
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) → j
! !ˀ !̬ !̃(n) !x → k ∅ ɡ ŋ x
ǂ ǂ̃n ǂˀ → c ɲ ʔj
ǁˀ ǁxʼ → {ǁˀ,∅} ǁˀ
ts dz kxʼ → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s} z kʼ
h → j~ʔj / _E
h → h~ʔj
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) ǀxʼ → j ǀˀ
! !ˀ !̬ !̃(n) !x → k ∅ ɡ ŋɡ x
ǂ̃n ǂxʼ → ɲ ǂˀ
ǁxʼ → ǁˀ
ts dz kxʼ → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s} z kʼ
h → j~ʔj / _E
h → h~j
Pogostick Man, from Rainer (1984), “Studying the linguistic and ethno-history of the Khoe-speaking (central Khoisan) peoples of Botswana, research in progress”. In Botswana Notes and Records 16:19 – 35.
ǀ̃(n) → ǂ̃n
!̃ !x → !̃(n) !x~x
ts → {ts~tsɦ,s}
h → j / _E
h → ɦ
Pogostick Man, from Heine, Bernd and Henry Honken (2010), “The Kx’a family: A New Khoisan Genealogy”
“Something about word-initial glottal stops”
∅ → a / o_m
a → ∅ / _e (sporadic)
o → ∅ / u_
u → ∅ / o_
iaɔ → iu
o → ∅ / a(C)_
Vn ŋ → V[+nas] ∅ / _#
t d s → {c,tʃ} ɟ ʃ
!! → ǁ
ⁿQʰ Q͡ɢ → Qʰ Q
Pogostick Man, from Heine, Bernd and Henry Honken (2010), “The Kx’a family: A New Khoisan Genealogy”
a → ∅ / #_m
ui → o (?)
i → ∅ / V_
a → ∅ / _e (sporadic)
u → ∅ / _o
o → ∅ / _u
o → a / _Ca
a → ∅ / _(C)o
“Some weird stuff with vowel pharyngealization/glottalization; some of the pharyngealized proto-vowels stayed that way, others glottalized”
ʕ → ʔ / _m
n → ∅ / _#
ts(ʼ) s → tʃ(ʼ) ʃ
!! ʘ → ǁ ǀ
ǂ → !! (dialectal)
Pogostick Man, from Heine, Bernd and Henry Honken (2010), “The Kx’a family: A New Khoisan Genealogy”
a → ∅ / #_m
ui → o (?)
i → ∅ / V_
ɛ ɔ → i u
u → ∅ / _o
o → ∅ / _u
o → a / _Ca
a → ∅ / _(C)o
“Some weird stuff with vowel pharyngealization/glottalization; some of the pharyngealized proto-vowels stayed that way, others glottalized”
ʕm → {b,ɓ}
n → ∅ / _#
ts(ʼ) s → tʃ(ʼ) ʃ
!! ʘ → ǁ ǀ
ʔ → ∅ / _nQ
ⁿQʰ {ǀʰ͜q,ǀʰ͜ɢ} Q͡q → ⁿQ(ʰ) ⁿǀʰ Q[+voiced]
Clouse (1993) reconstructs the following phonological inventory for Proto-Lakes Plain:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Velar | |
| Stop | p b | t d | k |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
Additionally, *ɾ is of uncertain reconstruction and is most likely an allophone of *d.
For the following sound changes, a circumflexed vowel refers to an “extra-high” or “fricativized” vowel. There are a few cases where I may have either missed, misread, or put in an extraneous sound change to extra-high vowels; many of these were due to my perception of changes involving extra-high vowels being listed without a change creating them.
(From Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17)
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
ɾ → ∅
ku →∅ / #_
d → ɾ / V_V
∅ → echo vowel / C_CV
CV → ∅ / _# (possibly only when CV_#, possibly sporadic)
e o → ɛ ɔ (?)
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
k → ɣ / V_V
b → β~m / #_V[-high]
b d ɡ → β~w ɾ~∅ ɣ / V_V
ti → s / #_V
t d → t~ɾ~n n / #_
iiɛ Vdiɛ → ijɛ βe
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p d → p~f n / #_
ti → s / #_V
b → β~m / #_V[+ low]
p b d k → p~f w ɾ ɡ~ɣ / V_V
iiɛ Vdiɛ → dzɛ ɾɛ
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p b d k → ɸ β ɾ x~k / V_V
ti → s / #_V
b → β~m / #_V[+ low]
iiɛ Vdiɛ → ijɛ βie
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p d → ɸ ɾ / V_V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
∅ → echo vowel / C_CV
ku → b
p k → ɸ ∅~k
ti → s~ti / _V
d → ɾ~d / V_V
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
a → e (?)
e o → ɛ ɔ
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
C → ∅ / _#
ɸ → h
b k → m~b ∅ / #_
d → d~n~l / #_a
d → dz / _i
s → s~t
∅ → dz / _î
ɛ → e
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
CV → ∅ / _#
ɸ → ɸ~h
b k → m~b ∅ / #_
d → d~l~n / #_a
ɾ → ∅ / V_V
“Some vowel coalescence takes place following the above; the author notes that the vowels often take on the tonal characteristics of the absorbed vowel”
au → ɔ
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
ti → s~ti / _V
ɾ → ɾ~∅ / V_V
a → e (?)
e → ɛ
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → h~ɸ
C → ∅ / _#
V → ∅ / di_
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
∅ → dz / î_V
ku → b
k → ∅ / _V̂
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → p~ɸ
C → ∅ / _#
di → dz / _V
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
V → dz / _V̂
ɾ → ∅ / ! _C
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → p~h
b C → ∅ d / _#
diV → dz
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
∅ → dz → î_V
iC → iC~i / _{C,#} (not sure how this plays in with the change mentioned earlier about extra-high vowels; I must have misread something)
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ
C → ∅ / _#
V → ∅ / di_
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
∅ → dz / î_V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b C → b̚ ɡ̚ / _#
V → ∅ / di_
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
∅ → dz / îV
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → p~h
b C → b~∅ {d,ɡ} / _#
diV → dz
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
∅ → dz / î_V
ik → ɡ / {s,k,p}_ ?
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p d → p~ɸs d~t
V → ∅ / di_
C → ∅ / _#
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
ɾ → ∅ / ! C_
k → ∅ / _V̂
∅ → dz / î_V
ik → ɡ / {s,p}_ ?
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ
ɾ → ɾ~∅ / V_V
k → k~∅
iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
b → m / #_a
b → b~ᵐb
ti di → s dz / _V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
b d → m n / #_a
ti → s / _V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
b d → m n / #_a
b d → b~ᵐb d~ⁿd
ti di → s dz / _V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
b d → m n / #_a
b d → b~ᵐb d~ⁿd
ti → s / _V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
b → m / #_a
b → b~ᵐb
ti di → s dz / _V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
b → m / #_a
b d → b~ᵐb d~ⁿd
ti di → s j / _V
Pogostick Man, from Clouse, Duane (1993), “Languages of the Western Lakes Plains”. IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya XXI:1 – 17
p → ɸ~h
b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
b d → m n / #_a
b d → b~ᵐb d~ⁿd
ti di → s dz / _V
Dixon (2004) gives the following reconstruction for Proto-Arawá:
| Bilabial | Coronal | Postalveolar | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Plosive | p pʰ b ɓ | t tʰ d ɗ | k kʰ ɡ ɠ | ʔ | |
| Fricative | s | h | |||
| Affricate | ts tsʰ dz | tʃ | |||
| Liquid | r |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | ||
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
Dixon states “[i]t is likely that, as in modern languages, *o ranged over [u] and [o]”. Further, he notes that “*w could have been a voiced bilabial fricative [β], or a labial-velar semivowel [w] (or could have had both as allophones), and *j could have been a voiced alveolar affricate [dz], a voiced postalveolar affricate [dʒ], or a voiced palatal stop [ɟ]”.
Dixon also hypothesizes that there was an Arawán language that eventually died out after gaining substrate status; he has attempted to identify sound changes from Proto-Arawá to this hypothetical language. While most likely incomplete his findings are presented below along with those of the other languages.
(From Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83)
Pogostick Man, from Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83
p → f
pʰ → p / #_
pʰ → ɸ / else
ɗ → t / #_
dz → s / medially
tsʰ → s
chris_notts & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83
ɓ → b / #_
ɓ → ɸ / medially
p(ʰ) → ɸ
{tʰ,ɗ} → t
kʰ ɡ → k w
{ts(ʰ),tʃ} dz → s ɟ
ʔ → ∅
Pogostick Man, from Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83
e → a / medially
e → i / #_
p → ʔ
pʰ → h / medially
dz → s
chris_notts & Pogostick Man, the latter citing Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83
ɓ → b / #_
ɓ → f / medially
ɗ → t
p(ʰ) {tʰ,d} → ɸ t
kʰ ɡ → k w
dz → ɟ
{ts(ʰ),tʃ} → s
ʔ → ∅
Pogostick Man, from Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83
ɓ → b / #_
ɓ → p / medially
ɗ → t
ɡ → w
tʃ → ʃ (?)
ʔ → ∅ / #_
Pogostick Man, from Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83
e → ɨ / _#
e → a / else
{p(ʰ),ɓ} → h
ɗ → d / #_
{tʰ,ɗ → t
kʰ → k
ts(ʰ) → s
ʔ → ∅ / #_, possibly everywhere?
Pogostick Man, from Dixon, R.M.W. (2004), “Proto-Arawá Phonology”. Anthropological Linguistics 46(1):1 – 83
e → a / medially
e → {a,i} / #_
pʰ → p / #_
pʰ t → ɸ ʔ / medial
ts(ʰ) → s
The following inventory for Proto-Lenmichian is posited by Constenla (2005).
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | |
| Stop | b | d t | k | ʔ |
| Affricate | ts | |||
| Fricative | s | h | ||
| Approximant | w | ɾ | ||
| Lateral | l |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
(From Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Macro-Chibchan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macro-Chibchan_languages&oldid=672637970>, presumably citing Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (2005), “?‘Existe relación genealógica entre las lenguas misumalpas y las chibchenses?”. Estudios de LingüÃstica Chibcha 24:7 – 85)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Macro-Chibchan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macro-Chibchan_languages&oldid=672637970>, presumably citing Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (2005), “?‘Existe relación genealógica entre las lenguas misumalpas y las chibchenses?”. Estudios de LingüÃstica Chibcha 24:7 – 85
l → ɾ
w → ∅
The following phonemic inventory is adapted from Wheeler (1972).
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Stop | p b | t d | k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ | ||
| Affricate | ts | tʃ | |||
| Fricative | s | x | h | ||
| Glide | w | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
Information in this section may be missing or incomplete, as I found the source document using Google Books and several pages were not available in the preview.
(From Wheeler, Alva (1972), “Proto-Chibchan”. In Matteson, Esther, ed., Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 93 – 108)
Pogostick Man, from Wheeler, Alva (1972), “Proto-Chibchan”. In Matteson, Esther, ed., Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 93 – 108
s → kh / _(V)k
s d → z r / _(V)j
ts h → s ∅
∅ → u / w_V
j → ∅ / i_V
j → {j,∅}
e → a
i → ∅ / a_
ia → ə (“unspecified”)
i → ∅ / C”V(C)_
i → ∅ / _(C)”V
Pogostick Man, from Wheeler, Alva (1972), “Proto-Chibchan”. In Matteson, Esther, ed., Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 93 – 108
b → p / _Vkʷ
Vs → h / n_
V → ∅ / s_j (sometimes)
s → h / V_V
ts → {s,z}
w → {w,∅}
j → ∅
n → {n,∅}
a → ∅ / _i, when unstressed
a → i / _Ci
a → ∅ / _u
u → o / _Ca
u → ∅ / _a
i → u / _(C)u
i → a / _(C)a
i → e / _(C)e
a {e,i} → i ∅ / C”V(C)_
i → ∅ / _(C)”V
a → ∅ / _”V
Pogostick Man, from Wheeler, Alva (1972), “Proto-Chibchan”. In Matteson, Esther, ed., Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 93 – 108
s → ∅ / #_
s → {ʃ,tʃ} / _i
s → h / _Vn
nVs dVs → n(V(s)) ʒ(Vʒ)
s h → {s,tʃ} {h,∅}
j → i / C(V)_
n j → {n,∅} {j,∅}
e → a
i → ∅ / a_ (sometimes)
u → w / _a
Pogostick Man, from Wheeler, Alva (1972), “Proto-Chibchan”. In Matteson, Esther, ed., Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 93 – 108
s → {ts,ʃ} / _i
s → {s,ts}
d(V)j s(V)j → lʲ dʒ
d → l
a → ∅ / _i
e → a
i → ə / oC_
i → ∅ / C”V(C)_
i → ∅ / _(C)”V
Pogostick Man, from Wheeler, Alva (1972), “Proto-Chibchan”. In Matteson, Esther, ed., Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 93 – 108
ɡ → ∅
s → {s,x,tʃ~ʃ}
s → {ʃ,tʃ} / _i
s → x / i_
h → ∅
{w,m} → b
s(V)d → dʲ
d → ∅ / V_s
e → a
i → ∅ / a_ (usually; sometimes the diphthong is retained or → aj)
a → i / iC_
u → ∅ / a_
u → ∅ / _a
{ue,aja} → ə
{u,i} → ∅ / C”V(C)_
i → ∅ / _(C)”V
e → u / uC_
e → ∅ / u_C
Pogostick Man, from Wheeler, Alva (1972), “Proto-Chibchan”. In Matteson, Esther, ed., Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 93 – 108
ɡ ɡʷ → ∅ b
{d(V)s,n(V)j} n(V)s → r {VsV,r}
d(V)j → r(V)
d → r
s → h / _(V)C
ts tʃ → tʃ s
m n h j → b {n,r,∅} {h,∅} {j,∅}
e → a
ai → e / if the *a is not stressed
a → ∅ / _u
i → a / _Ca
{a,i} → ∅ / C”V(C)_
i → ∅ / _(C)”V
e → ∅ / u_C
e → i / “conditioning undetermined”
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Macro-Chibchan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macro-Chibchan_languages&oldid=672637970>, presumably citing Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (2005), “?‘Existe relación genealógica entre las lenguas misumalpas y las chibchenses?”. Estudios de LingüÃstica Chibcha 24:7 – 85
b d → m n / _V[+ nasal] (I’m inferring this from the statement that “[t]here are also a series…of nasal vowels”)
b d → p l
{ʔ,h} → ∅
{s,ts} → tsʼ
o a → {u,o} {a,e}
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Macro-Chibchan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macro-Chibchan_languages&oldid=672637970>, presumably citing Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (2005), “?‘Existe relación genealógica entre las lenguas misumalpas y las chibchenses?”. Estudios de LingüÃstica Chibcha 24:7 – 85
b d → m n / _V[+ nasal] (I’m inferring this from the statement that “[t]here are also a series…of nasal vowels”)
b d → {b,p} l
{ʔ,h} → ∅
ts → s
Wikipedia gives the following reconstruction for the phonological inventory of Proto-Pama-Nyungan, citing Alpher (2004). The particulars of the presentation have been modified somewhat from that presented in the article.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | |
| Plosive | p | t | ʈ | c (cʲ?) | k |
| Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ŋ |
| Rhotic | r | ɽ | |||
| Lateral | l | ɭ | ʎ | ||
| Semivowel | w | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i iː | u uː | |
| Low | a aː |
(From Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Pama–Nyungan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages&oldid=605755580>, presumably citing Alpher, Barry (2004), “Proto-Pama-Nyungan etyma”. In Bowern, Claire, and Harold Koch (eds.), Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method)
NB: These changes are most likely largely incomplete, especially for languages with fewer changes shown.
Pogostick Man, from Hale, Kenneth (1964), “Classification of Northern Paman Languages, Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A Research Report”. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 3, No. 2, 248 – 265
C → ∅ / #_
i[-long]C → Cj / #_ ! _i
u[-long]C → Cw / #_
a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)
u i → w j / a_ when this a is a result of metathesis (?)
Vː → V[-long] / in #U
Pogostick Man, from Hale, Kenneth (1964), “Classification of Northern Paman Languages, Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A Research Report”. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 3, No. 2, 248 – 265
iC aC uC → Cj Ca Cw / #_ ! before an identical vowel
u i → w j / a_ when this a is a result of the preceding metathesis
(N)S → F / #(C)V_
∅ → j / #(C)iː(C)_V ! _i
∅ → w / #(C)uː(C)_V ! _u
∅ → a / #(C)aː(C)_V ! _a
C → ∅ / #_
Vː → ə / in #U
Pogostick Man, from Hale, Kenneth (1964), “Classification of Northern Paman Languages, Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A Research Report”. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 3, No. 2, 248 – 265
(N)S → F / #(C)V_
N → ∅ / #NV_SV
C → ∅ / #_
Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
Pogostick Man, from Hale, Kenneth (1964), “Classification of Northern Paman Languages, Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A Research Report”. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 3, No. 2, 248 – 265
C → ∅ / #_
i[-long]C → Cj / #_ ! _i
u[-long]C → Cw / #_
a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)
u i → w j / a_ when this a is a result of metathesis (?)
Vː → V[-long] / in #U
Pogostick Man, from Hale, Kenneth (1964), “Classification of Northern Paman Languages, Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A Research Report”. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 3, No. 2, 248 – 265
NVS → VⁿS / #_
C → ∅ / #_
Vː → V[-long] / in #U
Pogostick Man, from Hale, Kenneth (1964), “Classification of Northern Paman Languages, Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A Research Report”. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 3, No. 2, 248 – 265
(N)S → F / #(C)V_
Vː → V[-long] / in #U
Pogostick Man, from Hale, Kenneth (1964), “Classification of Northern Paman Languages, Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A Research Report”. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 3, No. 2, 248 – 265
a → i / #C[+palatal]V[-long]C_
i → e / #(C)aC[-palatal]_
#”UU → #U”U
NVS → VⁿS / #_
C → ∅ / #_
∅ → j / #iː(C)_a
∅ → w / #uː(C)_a
Vː → V[-long] / in #U
Ritchie (1968) gives the following phonology for Proto-Tacanan. The alveolopalatal series is inferred from the notation and may be incorrect.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Alveolopalatal | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||||
| Stop | p b | t d | k | ʔ | ||
| Affricate | ts | tɕ | tʃ | |||
| Fricative | s | ɕ | ʃ | |||
| Approximant | w | r | *ŕ | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | ||
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
(From Key, Mary Ritchie (1968), Comparative Tacanan Phonology with Cavineña Phonology and Notes on Pano-Tacanan Relationship)
Pogostick Man, from Key, Mary Ritchie (1968), Comparative Tacanan Phonology with Cavineña Phonology and Notes on Pano-Tacanan Relationship
k → kʷ
{ɕ,tɕ} → h
x → k
*ŕ → r
Pogostick Man, from Key, Mary Ritchie (1968), Comparative Tacanan Phonology with Cavineña Phonology and Notes on Pano-Tacanan Relationship
b d → ɓ ɗ
ɗ → {ʔ,∅} / ! #_
t k → k kʷ
tʃ → s / _i
tɕ → ʃ
s ɕ → ð h
n → ɲ / i_{o,a} (the former is conjectured)
{r,*ŕ} → {∅,w,j}
Pogostick Man, from Key, Mary Ritchie (1968), Comparative Tacanan Phonology with Cavineña Phonology and Notes on Pano-Tacanan Relationship
k → kʷ
b d → ᵐb ⁿdz
ts → tʃ / #_
tʃ ɕ → ts ʃ
ɕ x → ð h
w → β / _E ?
*ŕ → ∅
j → tʃ / V_V
Pogostick Man, from Key, Mary Ritchie (1968), Comparative Tacanan Phonology with Cavineña Phonology and Notes on Pano-Tacanan Relationship
k → kʷ / _a
k → kʷ / #_i
∅ → j / k_e
tɕ → dʑ
tʃ → ts / _E
ɕ → s
x → h / #_
x → {h,∅}
w → β / _E
j → tʃ / V_V
*ŕ → ∅
Dwyer (1987/1988) gives the following consonants for Proto-Mande.
| Labial-Velar | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||
| Stop | kp kpʼ ɡb | p b | t tʼ d | k kʼ ɡ | |
| Fricative | f | s z | |||
| Approximant | l | j | w |
(From Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152)
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
p → f
tʼ {kʼ,ɡ} → t k
l → d
z → {s,j}
w → ɡ
ŋ → ɲ
kp ɡb → k ɡw
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
tʼ kʼ → t k
d → l
ŋ → ɲ
kp kpʼ → {kp,k} ɡb
j → i
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
tʼ kʼ → t k
d → l
ŋ → ɲ
kpʼ → ɡb
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
p f → f v
tʼ kʼ → t k
d → l
ŋ → ɲ
kp {kpʼ,ɡb} → p b
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
p → f
l → d
z → s
{ɡ,w,kp} kpʼ ɡb → k kp b
tʼ kʼ → t k
ŋ → ɲ
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
f → p
{tʼ,d} {kʼ,ɡ} → l k
z → s
w → ɡ
ŋ → ɲ
kp kpʼ ɡb → {k,B} kp B (it’s unclear what this 〈B〉 is)
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
p → f
l → d
z → s
{k,ɡ,kp} {kpʼ,ɡb} → s b
tʼ kʼ → t k
ŋ → ɲ
w j → k dʒ
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
f → v
tʼ kʼ → t k
d → l
ŋ → ɲ
kpʼ → ɡb
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
f → v
tʼ kʼ → t k
d → l
ŋ → ɲ
kpʼ → ɡb
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
tʼ kʼ → t k
d → l
ŋ → ɲ
kp kpʼ → k b
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
p → f
f → d (yes, really)
tʼ {kʼ,ɡ,w} → {t,d} k
l → d
z → s
ɡb → b
j → dʒ
ŋ → ɲ
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
p → f
tʼ {kʼ,ɡ} → {t,d} k
z → j ?
{w,ŋ} → j
kp ɡb → k b
Pogostick Man, from Dwyer, David J. (1987/1988), “Towards Proto Mande Morphology”. Mandekan: Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques 14/15:139 – 152
NB: These changes only deal with consonants.
p → f
tʼ → t
l → d
z → s
w → x
ŋ → j
kp ɡb → k b
Wikipedia gives the following for the Proto-Mayan phonology:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||
| Plosive | p ɓ | t tʼ | tʲ tʲʼ | k kʼ | q qʼ | ʔ |
| Fricative | s | ʃ | χ | h | ||
| Affricate | ts tsʼ | tʃ tʃʼ | ||||
| Liquid | l r | |||||
| Glide | j | w |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i iː | u uː | |
| Mid | e eː | o oː | |
| Low | a aː |
(From Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Mayan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mayan_languages&oldid=583331877>)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
q(ʼ) → k(ʼ)
ŋ → n
aː eː oː → ɨ i u
tʲ(ʼ) → t(ʼ)
r → j
Vː → V[-long]
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
ŋ → n
tʲ(ʼ) → t(ʼ)
r → j
Vː → V[-long]
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
w → b
h → w / _{o,u}
q(ʼ) → k(ʼ)
ŋ → h
kV[+round]C[+glide] → kʷ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
ŋ → x
t → tʃ
CVʔVC → CVʔC
r → {t,j}
tʃ → ʈʂ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
ŋ → x
h → j / _#
CVʔVC → CVʔC
ɓ w → ʔ j / VCV_#
tʲ(ʼ) → tʃ(ʼ)
Vː → V[-long]
“Kaqchikel retains a centralized lax schwa-like vowel as a reflex of Proto-Mayan [a]”
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
ŋ → x
CVʔVC → CVʔC
tʲ(ʼ) → tʃ(ʼ)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
ŋ → x
t → tʃ
CVʔVC → CVʔC
r → {t,j}
tʃ → ʈʂ
tʲ(ʼ) → t(ʼ)
tʲ(ʼ) → ts(ʼ)
r t tʃ ʃ → t tʃ ʈʂ ʂ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
q(ʼ) → k(ʼ)
ŋ → n
r → j
Vː → V[-long]
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
q(ʼ) → k(ʼ)
ŋ → n
aː eː oː → ɨ i u
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Proto-Mayan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Mayan_language&oldid=571518268>
q(ʼ) → k(ʼ)
ŋ → n
aː → ɨ
t → tʃ / _#
tʲ(ʼ) → tʃ(ʼ)
“[V]owel length and [h] and [ʔ]” have converted into a tone distinction
The following Proto-Muskogean phonemic inventory is adapted from Wikipedia contributors (2016), citing Booker (2005).
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Rounded Velar | |
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Stop | p | t | k | kʷ | |
| Affricate | ts | tʃ | |||
| Fricative | s | ʃ | x | xʷ | |
| Lateral Fricative | ɬ | ||||
| Approximant | l | j | w | ||
| Unknown | θ |
In addition, Booker (2005) posits two phonemes of unknown value. These phonemes dropped out in all positions in Eastern Muskogean, and only survived in the final syllable in Western Muskogean, where they yielded a glottal stop (/ʔ/) and a glottal fricative (/h/) before developing further in the respective languages. I have termed the progenitor phonemes “weak” (namely C1[+ weak] and C2[+ weak]). (I tentatively hypothesize that these were *ʔ *h, respectively, but am not sure.)
I would like to take the unusual step of asking for help. I had to go to the library to find Booker’s paper, and in my notes I failed to write down the languages for which the following sound changes occurred:
l → j / a_i
k → ∅ / V_C ! penult
V → V̂ː / _Cko, ko lost?
If anyone has a copy of Booker’s paper and can double-check, please contact me via one of the methods listed in the appropriate section.
(From Wikipedia contributors (2016), “Muskogean languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muskogean_languages&oldid=704652062>, citing Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298; and Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298)
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
θ → ɬ
xʷ → f
VC[+ weak] → ∅ / _V#
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
ʃ → ts
kV → ∅ / V_#
k → ∅
ts x → s h / _C
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
V1kV2 → V2ː / #((C)V(C))(C)_#
V1k → ∅ / _#
ʃ → ts
kʷ → k / #_
kʷ → b
S → S[+ voice] / V_V
h → x / _%
V0xV0 → V0ː
Initial vowels lost?
x → w / a_o
x → h
m → ŋ / _k
ts and t alternate before k
kl → kː
Cː → C[- long]
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
ʃ → ts
V → ∅ / Vk_#
x → j / V0_V0
x → h
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
ʃ → ts
VkV → ”V / _#
k → ∅
ts → s / _C
nt → tː
x → h
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
V → ∅ / Vk_#
x → j / V0_V0
tʃ → s / _C ! _k
ʃ x → ts h
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
ʃ x → ts h
tl → tː
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
ts tʃ → s ts
θ → n
s → ʃ
x → h
C1[+ weak] C2[+ weak] → ʔ h / V_V#
V → ∅ / V{k,ʔ,h}_#
xʷ → h / %_{o,i}(C)#
a → o / xʷ_#
oj aj → iː {aː,iː}
i → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)V(C)(C)_# (sporadic in the case of other vowels)
tl st → lː tː
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
h → ∅ / _#
aw → o
xʷɬ → ɬː
Pogostick Man, from Booker, Karen (2005), “Muskogean Historical Phonology”. In Hardy, Heather Kay, and Janine Scancarelli, eds., Native Languages of the Southeastern United States 246 – 298
ʔ → ∅/ _#
xʷ → h / V_V
ɬh → ɬː
a → o / _w
p → k / _C
Note that the changes from Proto-Na-Dene and Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak deal only with obstruents.
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Na-Dene languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Na-Dene_languages&oldid=666126262>
kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz s
{s,ʃ} → ∅ / _x
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Na-Dene languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Na-Dene_languages&oldid=666126262>
ɬ → {ɬ,l}
ʃ → {ʂ,ʐ}
{s,dz} → {s,z}
k kʼ kʷ kʷʼ ɡ ɡʷ → kʲ kʲʼ tʂ tʂʼ ɡʲ ɖʐ
x xʷ → {xʲ,j} {ʂ,ʐ}
Qʷ → Qʷ → Q ?
χ(ʷ) → {χ,ʁ}
Wikipedia gives the following reconstructions, adapted from Cook (1981), Krauss & Golla (1981), Krauss & Leer (1981), and Cook & Rice (1981) for the consonants and from Leer (2005:284) for the vowels; the vowel phonemes in parentheses are reduced.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | |||
| Plosive | t tʰ tʼ | k kʰ kʼ | q qʷ qʰ qʷʰ qʼ qʷʼ | ʔ | ||
| Fricative | s z | ʃ ʃʷ ʒ ʒʷ | x ɣ | χ χʷ ʁ ʁʷ | h | |
| Lat. Fric. | ɬ ɮ~l | |||||
| Affricate | t͜s t͜sʰ t͜sʼ | t͜ʃ t͜ʃʷ t͜ʃʰ t͜ʃʷʰ t͜ʃʼ t͜ʃʷʼ | ||||
| Lat. Aff. | t͜ɬ t͜ɬʰ t͜ɬ’ | |||||
| Approximant | j | w |
| Front | Back | |
| High | iː | uː |
| Mid | (ə) | (ʊ) |
| Low | eː | (ɑ) ɑː |
In addition, though it is not encountered in these changes, there is a phoneme that crops up in forms of the first-person singular pronoun which has various reflexes in many Athabaskan languages; Krauss (1976b) represents it as *$. Leer transcribed it as *šʸ in 2005:284 but in 2008 opted to use the *$ transcription.
The great majority of changes in this section are for the respective series of consonants, not for individual ones; therefore, changes specific to single consonants are marked so, and the reader should assume that unless explicitly stated, all of the following changes apply to the entire consonantal series. At the recommendation of Jan Strasser, the following conventions will be used to refer to the series; these are based on the abbreviations Whimemsz gave on the original Correspondence Library page, derived from the voiceless members of each series:
(From Whimemsz’s statements from the TCL thread and Wiki, and from Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Athabaskan languages”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athabaskan_languages&oldid=454112398>)
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
{TŠ,TŠʷ} → TS
K → TŠ / in Mentasta Ahtna
{ʃ(ʷ),x} → s
ɑ ə ʊ → a e o
Vˀ → V[-glottalized]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
{TŠ,TŠʷ} → TS
u ɑ ʊ → {o,u} ə u
Vˀ → V[-glottalized]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS → TH (most often back to 3, however)
{TŠ,TŠʷ} → TS
K Q → TŠ K
T → TŠ / _{i,e,u}, in the British Columbian dialect
{n,ɲ} → d / $_V[-nas] (→ dʒ in the British Columbian dialect)
ɑ → ə
Vˀ → V[+high tone]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS series desibilantizes
V → {Vˀ,V[+RTR]}
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K → TS TŠ
The Q series incompletely moves to the K series, the latter being more common
e {ɑ,ə} → i {e,ɪ}
Vˀ → V[+high tone]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS {TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TH TS TŠ K
t → k (not for all speakers)
{A,O’} → F / _$
ɑ ʊ → a o
Vˀ → V[+high tone]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TS TŠ K
u {ɑ,ʊ} → {o,u} ə
Vˀ → V[-glottalized]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS TŠ → TH TS
TŠʷ → TṢ (→ TS in Kuskokwim dialect)
K → {K,TŠ}
w → v (→ w in Shageluk dialect)
ɲ → ŋ
R F → R[-voiced] F[-voiced] / _# in suffixes
e u a {ɑ,ʊ} → a i u ə
C’ → C / _$
Vˀ → V[-glottalized]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
{TŠ,TŠʷ} → TŠ (→ TS in Upper Inlet dialect)
e a u {ə,ʊ} → a u i ə
{ʃ(ʷ),x {z,ʒ(ʷ),ɣ} → s j
Vˀ → V[-glottalized]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
C → h / _$
ɑ ə ʊ u → a e o i
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TS TŠ K
ts tsʰ tsʼ s z → kʷ kʷʰ kʷʼ ʍ w
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
NB: Here, 〈TS〉 represents a sound that Whimemsz says “is between” the TH and TS series POA-wise.
TS K → TŠ TS / _E
TS K → TH TŠ / else
TŠ TŠʷ Q → TS TṢ K
j w → ʒ v
{n,ɲ} → ⁿdʒ / _E[-nas]
{n,ɲ} → ⁿd / _V[-nas]
{i,e} → {i,ja} (this latter due to the loss of final consonants within the stem)
a u {ɑ,ə} ʊ → {i,e} ju a o
Vˀ → V[+low tone]
“An ‘extensive reduction’ of stem-final consonants; however, reflexes of final *-ɲ and *-n after PA *a and *e are kept distinct”
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS TŠ TŠʷ K Q → TH TS TṢ TŠ K
Occasional palatalization in front of high vowels
n → (ⁿ)d / $_V[-nas]
j → ʒ / $_
a ɑ ə ʊ → æ a {ə,ë} o
Acquisition of vowel length, but how this occurs is not described
Vˀ → V[+low tone]
Majority of stem-final consonants lost; the only stem-finals permitted in comtemporary Han are /t k w j r n h ʔ/, with the addition of /l/ in Dawson Han
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS → TH
e → a / in prefixes
i e a u {ɑ,ʊ} → e a ɔ o ŭ
TS {TŠ,TŠʷ} → TŁ TS
C’ → C / _$
Vˀ → V[+low tone]
w (→ b?) → m
ə → ∅ / {R,F}_#
Pogostick Man, from Sapir, Edward (1936), ”Reflexes of Proto-Athabaskan in Several Languages (Hupa, Navaho, Chipewyan, Sarcee)”
NB: First, part of the list of correspondences was cut off; second, it is sometimes difficult to read Sapir’s handwriting; and third, I’m hoping I made the correct inferences about his notation.
h → {h,∅}
q ʀ → x w
{qʷ,xʷ} qʷʼ ɢʷ ɣʷ → x(ʷ) q(ʷ)ʼ ɢ(ʷ) w
z → s
{ʃ,ʒ} → w
xʲ → w
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
e a ɑ ʊ → a o ŏ ŭ
TS {TŠ,TŠʷ} → TŁ TS
C’ → C / _$
Vˀ → V[+low tone]
w (→ b?) → m
ə → ∅ / {R,F}_#
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
e a ɑ ʊ → a o ŏ ŭ
TS {TŠ,TŠʷ} → TŁ TS
Stem-final/suffixal consonant clusters lost in Minchumina-Bearpaw Upper Koyukon
K → TŠ
C’ → C / _$
Vˀ → V[+low tone] → V[-tone]
w → m / _Vn (sporadic)
w → b
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TŠ TŠʷ K Q → TS TṢ TŠ K
e a {ɑ,ʊ} → a o ŭ
Vˀ → V[-glottalized]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TS TŠ K
ɑ́ ə́ ʊ́ → ɑ̄ ə̄ ʊ̄
{e,ə} ʊ → ɑ u
Vˀ → V[+low tone]
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS → TH (→ TS again in some areas)
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TS TŠ Q
T → TŠ / _{i,e,u} ! in Ware Sekani
ʊ → o
Vˀ → V[+high tone]
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
K → TS
m → {m,b} (→ b seems more common)
ɣ → h / in prefixes relating to word derivation
VnC → V[+ nas]C / _#, unless C = ʔ
t n x → d n h / in prefixes relating to word derivation
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
t → k
{s,z}(ʔ) {ʃ,ʒ}(ʔ) {ɬ,ɮ}(ʔ) → s ʃ ɬ / _#
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
n → d
d → ∅ / _#
k → tʃ / _E
{xʲ,j}ʔ {x,ɣ}ʔ → ∅ h(ʔ) / _#
Vnʔ VnC → V[+ nas] V[+ nas]C / _#
x ɣ → h ∅ / _#
{d,j} → j / ∅ / _#
xʲ j → ʃ ʒ
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
d → ʔ / _#
xʲ xʔ j ɣʔ → h ʔ ∅ ʔ / E_#
xʲ xʔ j ɡʔ → ih iʔ i iʔ / _#
xʲʔ jʔ → h ʔ / _#
x ɣ / h ∅ / _#
n → ⁿd
xʲ → s
j → ɣ / _E
Vnʔ VnC → V[+ nas] V[+ nas]C / _#
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
d → ∅ / _#
xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
{xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
{x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
Vnʔ VnC → V[+ nas] V[+ nas] / _#
n → ⁿd
xʲ → s
j → ɣ / _E
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
j → ɣ / _E
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
d → ∅ / _#
xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
{xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
{x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
Vnʔ → V[+ nas] / _#
n → ⁿd
{s,z}(ʔ) {ʃ,ʒ}(ʔ) {ɬ,ɮ}(ʔ) → s ʃ ɬ / _#
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
d → ∅
xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
{xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
{x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
Vnʔ → V[+ nas] / _#
n → ⁿd
ʔ → ∅ / {s,ʃ,ɬ}_#
z(ʔ) ʒ(ʔ) ɮ(ʔ) → dz dʒ dɮ / _#
Pogostick Man, from Hoijer, Harry (1938), “The Southern Athapaskan Languages”. American Anthropologist 40:75 – 87
x(ʲ) {j,ɣ} → h ∅ / _#
xʲʔ jʔ → h ʔ / _#
{x,ɣ}ʔ → ɡ
Vnˀ → V[+ nas] / _#
n → ⁿd
{s,z}(ʔ) {ʃ,ʒ}(ʔ) {ɬ,ɮ}(ʔ) → s ʃ ɬ / _#
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
C → {h,ʔ} / _#
ɑ ə ʊ → a ɛ o
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TS TŠ K
ts tsʰ tsʼ s z → kʷ kʷʰ kʷʼ ʍ w
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
tɬʰ tʃ(ʷ)ʰ kʰ → ɬ s ʃ
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K → TS TŠ (with exceptions)
Q → K
∅ → j / _e
ɬ → l
ts tsʰ tsʼ {s,z} → {kʷ,p} f wˀ w
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
C → {h,ʔ} / _#
ɑ ə ʊ → a e o
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TS TŠ K
ts tsʰ tsʼ s z → p pʰ pʼ f v
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
C → {h,ʔ} / _#
ɑ ə ʊ → a e o
{TŠ,TŠʷ} K Q → TS TŠ K
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
ɑ ə ʊ → a {i,e} u
C’ → C / _$
Q → K
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
Vˀ → V[+high tone]
TS {TŠ,TŠʷ} → TH TS
K → TŠ (although /xʲ/ stays as such in a few dialects)
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
{TŠ,TŠʷ} TS → TS TSʲ
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
{TŠʷ,K} → TŠ (although /xʲ/ stays as such in a few dialects)
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
K → TŠ / ! _$
TS TŠ TŠʷ Q → TH TS TṢ K
S’ → S / _$
Vˀ → V[+high tone]
Acquisition of phonemic length in some unreduced vowels, though exactly how is not explored
Vɲ → V[+nas]
{n,ɲ} → ⁿd
F[+voiced] → F[-voiced] / _$
ʃ → h / in the “1sg subject prefix”
ɬ → h / in the grammatical classifier
ɑ ə ʊ → {æ̆,ă} æ̆ ŏ
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
K → TŠ / ! _$
TS TŠ TŠᵚ Q → TH TS TṢ K
S’ → S / _$
Vˀ → V[+low tone] (“since then partially neutralized in noun and verb stems, but ‘still clear in verbal prefixes’”)
e a {ɑ,ʊ} → æ ɔ ŭ
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
K → TŠ / ! _$
TS TŠ TŠʷ Q → TH TS TṢ K
S’ → S / _$
Acquisition of phonemic length in some unreduced vowels, but this is not explored
Vɲ → V[+nas]
{n,ɲ} → ⁿd
{A,F} → ∅ / _$; diphthongs sometimes lengthen in comparison
ʃ → h / in the “1sg subject prefix”
ɬ → h / in the grammatical classifier
{a,ɑ} e i u ʊ → e(a) {i,ea} ju {a,ɨ} o
ə → {a,ɨ} (→ ø in the Northway dialect)
Vˀ → V[+low tone] (→ V[-tone] in “young speakers by 1980”)
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
NB: Whimemsz indicates that the following are to be taken with a grain of salt, as not all of the correspondences are clear due to a lack of detailed sources.
TŠ → TS
Series TŠʷ apparently moved its POA to the labiodental or bilabial position
K Q → TŠ K
C → ∅ / _$ in many cases
ʊ → o
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS {TŠ,TŠʷ} → TH TS
K → TŠ (although /xʲ/ remained as such in a few dialects)
Q → K
{ɑ,ə,ʊ} → {a,o}
Most stem-final consonants lost, though some plain and labialized palatal reflexes have developed differently
Vˀ → V[+high tone]
Acquisition of nasalized vowels and diphthongs
/o/ somehow develops
Whimemsz, from Krauss, Michael and Victor Golla (1981), “Northern Athapaskan Languages”. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6 (Subarctic), 67 – 85
TS {TŠ,TŠʷ} → TH TS
K → TŠ (although /xʲ/ remained as such in a few dialects)
Q → K
e a → i e
{ɑ,ə,ʊ} → {a,o}
Most stem-final consonants lost, though some plain and labialized palatal reflexes have developed differently
Vˀ → V[+low tone]
Acquisition of nasalized vowels and diphthongs
/ɨ/ somehow develops
A → F (some slight POA changes; alveolars become dentals, for instance)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Na-Dene languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Na-Dene_languages&oldid=666126262>
kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz {s,ʃ}
Kʷ → K
qʷ qʷʼ ɢʷ → q qʼ ɢ
s → ∅ / _x
x → ∅ / ʃ_
$ → xʷ → {x,s}
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2015), “Na-Dene languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Na-Dene_languages&oldid=666126262>
NB: Where a colon appears, forms to the left are the typical forms and forms to the right are “l-assimilated”.
s → s : ɬ
ts → ts : tɬ
tsʼ → {sʼ,tsʼ} : {ɬ,tɬʼ}
ʃ → {ʃ,s} : ɬ
tʃ → {tʃ,ts} : tɬ
tʃʼ → {sʼ,tʃʼ} : tɬʼ
Somethings going on with the velars and uvulars; apparently, both the rounded and unrounded consonants have reflexes that may or may not be rounded
kʲ kʲʼ → {k,ʃ} kʼ
xʲ → x
k(ʷ)ʼ → {x,k}(ʷ)ʼ
x(ʷ) → x
qʼ qʷʼ → χ(ʷ)ʼ {χʼ,q(ʷ)ʼ}
x → ∅ / {s,ʃ}_
$ → χ
Hedinger (1987) reconstructs the following consonant inventory for Pre-Proto-Bantu:
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |
| Lenis nasal | ’m | ’n | ’ɲ | |
| Fortis nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ |
| Lenis stop | ’p | ’t ’d | ’ɟ | ’k ’ɡ |
| Fortis stop | p b | t d | c ɟ | k ɡ |
| Unknown (stop?) | d2 |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid-high | e | o | |
| Mid-low | ɛ | ɔ | |
| Low | a |
*’p *’c *’ɟ *’ɡ appear confined to C1 position; *ŋ, to C2 position.
Hedinger also considers the Manenguba languages (and possibly the Mbo languages in general) as sharing a common ancestor with Proto-Bantu instead of being descended from it, although the author seems to use the abbreviation “PM” to refer to Proto-Manenguba.
Due to the scarcity of available resources on Niger-Congo historical phonology, there will likely be many overlaps or contradictions in the available data, maybe more so than in other sections, even Indo-European. What is included in the Index is what is available.
(From Hedinger, Robert (1987), The Manenguba Languages (Bantu A.15, Mbo Cluster) of Cameroon)
Pogostick Man, from Stewart, John M. (2002), “The potential of proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated”. JALL 23:197 – 224
NB: For at least the first batch of sound changes herein, the sound changes applying to those consonants in #U will also apply in U2 under the following conditions, as reported by Stewart (2002): If V2 = V1 (vowel nasality does not necessarily have to be the same, however), changes affecting the vowels will also affect V2. If C is an approximant, changes involving a nasalized V1 will also affect C2 and V2.
ʋ̃ → l̃ / #_
u ũ → i ı̃ / #R[-labial]_
ʋ̃ ɪ̃ → ũ ı̃ / #N[-labial]_
i ı̃ V[-round] → uɪ uɪ̃ V[+round] / Cʷ_
ʋ̃ → ʋ / #R[-labial]_
ʄ C → c R / #_
ɠʷ → w / #_V[-nas]
ɠʷ → w̃ / #_V[+nas]
V[+nas] → V[-nas] / #S[+voiced]_
ɪ̃ → ɛ̃ / #(C)V_C
ɰ ɰ̃ → j j̃ / #C_
ɪ ɪ̃ → i ı̃ / #(C)V[-high]C_
ʋ̃ → m / #(C)V_
O[+nas -voiced] → O[-nas] / #(C)VC_
Pogostick Man, from Hedinger, Robert (1987), The Manenguba Languages (Bantu A.15, Mbo Cluster) of Cameroon
S[+ lenis] N[+ lenis] → S[- lenis] N[- lenis] / in C1 position
N[+ lenis] N[-lenis] → N[- lenis] ⁿS / in C2 position
d2 → d / in C2 position
Pogostick Man, from Chebanne, A. (2000), “The Sebirwa language: a synchronic and diachronic account”. Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies 14(2)
i u VS → j w A / _V[+high +ATR]
S → Sʰ → Aʰ
V[+high +ATR] → V[+high -ATR]
NC → C[-voiced] / #_ (in nouns)
NC → N[+same POA]C / #_ (in verbs)
t d l → {ʈ,tʲ} {ɖ,dʲ} {ɭ,lʲ,ʎ} (The paper is a bit unclear as to which is meant, as the transcription and the textual aspects of the paper seem to disagree here)
p t d c ɟ k ɡ → ɸ ɹ {d,l} tʰ ∅ h {∅,ɡ}
∅ → ɡ / #n_V (in verbs)
l → d / n_
Whimemsz, from Creissels, Dennis (1999), “Remarks on the Sound Corresponences between Proto-Bantu and Tswana (S.31), with Particular Attention to Problems Involving *j (or *y), *j̬ and Sequences *NC”. Bantu Historical Linguistics: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives, ed. Jean-Marie Hombert and Larry M. Hyman
{p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n} → s tsʰ ts ɲ / _iV
{tʃ,k} {ntʃ,nk,r} {ɲdʒ,nɡ} mp mb p b {d,l} m n → s tsʰ ts tʃʰ(w) tʃ(w) ʃ(w) dʒ(w) dʒ ŋw ɲ / _{ɪ,e}V
{p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n,ɲ} → sw tsʰw tsw ɲw / _iV
mp mb p b m → tʃʰ(w) tʃ(w) ʃ(w) dʒ(w) ŋw / _{ʊ,o}V
“In these cases, the initial vowel of the sequence drops following the consonant change”; Whimemsz doesn’t specify if all V1V2 sequences drop the V1
{tʃ,k} {ɲtʃ,nk} {ndʒ,nɡ} → s tsʰ ts / _{i,ɪ,e}
nk k → kʰ h / _u
mp nt ɲtʃ nk mp nd ɲdʒ nɡ → pʰ tʰ tɬʰ qʰ p t tɬ k
p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
Pogostick Man, from Nurse, Derek (1985), “Dentality, Areal Features, and Phonological Change in Northeastern Bantu”. In Studies of African Linguistics 16(3):243 – 279
NB: Due to the source, only changes creating dental consonants are considered here.
ntç tç → (n̪)t̪ʰ t̪
{ndj,nz} → n̪d̪
Pogostick Man, from Nurse, Derek (1985), “Dentality, Areal Features, and Phonological Change in Northeastern Bantu”. In Studies of African Linguistics 16(3):243 – 279
NB: Due to the source, only changes creating dental consonants are considered here.
ntç tç → (n̪)t̪ʰ t̪
{ndj,nz} ɲz → n̪d̪ n̪ ð
Pogostick Man, from Nurse, Derek (1985), “Dentality, Areal Features, and Phonological Change in Northeastern Bantu”. In Studies of African Linguistics 16(3):243 – 279
NB: Due to the source, only a few changes, mostly concerning creating dental consonants, are considered here.
ntç tç → (n̪)t̪ʰ t̪
ndj → n̪d̪
ɲ → {ɲ,n̪}
Pogostick Man, from Nurse, Derek (1985), “Dentality, Areal Features, and Phonological Change in Northeastern Bantu”. In Studies of African Linguistics 16(3):243 – 279
NB: Due to the source, only changes creating dental consonants are considered here.
ntç tç → (n̪)t̪ʰ t̪
{ndj,nz} z → n̪d̪ ð
Pogostick Man, from Nurse, Derek (1985), “Dentality, Areal Features, and Phonological Change in Northeastern Bantu”. In Studies of African Linguistics 16(3):243 – 279
NB: Due to the source, only a few changes are considered here.
nz z c → ɲd̪ ʃ
Pogostick Man, from Nurse, Derek (1985), “Dentality, Areal Features, and Phonological Change in Northeastern Bantu”. In Studies of African Linguistics 16(3):243 – 279
NB: Due to the source, only a change creating a dental consonant is considered here.
l → d̪
Pogostick Man, from Hedinger, Robert (1987), The Manenguba Languages (Bantu A.15, Mbo Cluster) of Cameroon
NB: In Hedinger’s notation, an apostrophe indicates a lenis consonant in Pre-Proto-Bantu.
*ɟ may have turned into one of {c,(n)z}?
’p ’t ’d/d2 c {’ɟ} ’k ɡ → f l ɟ s ∅ {w,∅} {k,w} / in C1 position
N[+ lenis] → N[- lenis] / in C1 position
p t ’t {’d,d2} c k ’k → b d l {l,∅} ɟ ɡ ∅ / in C2 position
’m m ’n n {’ɲ,ɲ} ŋ → m {ᵐb,m} n {ⁿd,n} ɲ {ᵑɡ,ŋ} / in C2 position
{u,o} {ɛ,e,i} → w j / C_a in noun roots
{u,o} {ɛ,e,i} → w j / C_(a) in verb roots
{u,o} {ɛ,e,i} → w j / C_$V in noun class prefixes
f → h (perhaps not in all languages?)
Pogostick Man, from Stewart, John M. (2002), “The potential of proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated”. JALL 23:197 – 224
C → J[+nas] / #(C)V[+nas]_
ɰɰ̃ →l l̃ / #(C)V_
C → J / #(C)V_
ɪ(Cɪ) → e(Ci) / t_; “vowel nasalizations are retained either way on each”
ɟ ʄ j c ɠʷ → c ɟ ʄ t ɠ̥p
(N)V1[+mid +nas](l̃) → CV[-nas]n
V[+nas](ʋ̃,l̃) → V[-nas](m,n) / #J[+voiced]_
Pogostick Man, from Stewart, John M. (2002), “The potential of proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated”. JALL 23:197 – 224
V[+high +ATR](C(V[+high -ATR])) → #(C)V[-high +ATR](CV[+high +ATR]) / #J[+dorsal -voiced]_
ɛ → ia / #(C)_
R[-voiced] R[+voiced] W → Z[-voiced] O[-voiced] F / #_
ɰ ɰ̃ w̃ → h h̃ h̃ʷ / #_
h̃ hʷ → ɕ ɕʷ
h → ɲı̃ / #_ã
h → w / #_
t → c / #_V[-nas]
Pogostick Man, from Stewart, John M. (2002), “The potential of proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated”. JALL 23:197 – 224
l l̃ → j j̃ / #_
C[+dorsal] → Cʷ / _V[+round]
V → V[-round] / #C[+dorsal]_C[-labial]
jV[+nas] → jV[-nas] / #_
f → j / #_V[-nas]
f → j̃ / #_V[+nas]
{p,ʋ̃} c k͜p → f s p / #_
n → ŋ / #(C)V_
N → S (I’m not sure what’s going on here in the paper, but here it is presented anyway for your enjoyment)
V → ∅ / #(C)VC[-coronal]_
ʋ l → w ɹ / #(C)V_
V[+high] → V[+nas] / #(C)_N
i → ∅ / #C_a
ı̃ → ∅ / #_ã
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
ɛ ɛ̃ → e ẽ
{o,ɔ} {ɛ,e} → u i / _i
V[+ nas - high] → [+ high] / _i
j{ã,ẽ} → {ɥ,ɥ̃} / _E
j → ɲ / _V[+ nas]
ʁ → j / _i
χ ʁ → s z / _{i,j}
χʷ hʷ → w p
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
t d → tʃ dʒ / _{u,i}
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
{ts,tʰ} {dz,dʱ} → s z
{t,k}j {d,ɡ}j → tʃ dʒ
hʷ → ʁʷ
oi ɔi ɔ̃i {a,ɛ}i {ɛ̃,ẽ}i ei → oe ɔɛ ɔ̃ɛ̃ ɛɛ ɛ̃ɛ̃ ee
ãi → ɛ̃ɛ̃
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
χʷ → p
ts dz → s z
{t,k}j {d,ɡ}j → tʃ dʒ
tʰ dʱ → t d
hʷ → {w,ʁʷ}
w → ŋ
ɛ ɛ̃ → e ẽ
j → ɲ / _V[+ nas]
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
{ts,tʰ} {dz,dʱ} → s z
hʷ → ʁʷ
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
t d → ʃ ʒ / _j
j → ∅ / {ʃ,ʒ}_
k ɡ → ʃ ʒ / _i
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
χʷ ʁʷ → ɸ β
{ɛ,e} {~ɛ,ẽ} → ə ə̃
hʷ → w
w → ɣ / _{a,E}
w → {w,ŋ}
j → ɲ / _V[+ nas]
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
V → V[+ nas] / N_
V[+ nas] → V[- nas] / C_ ! C = N
ts dz → s z
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _i
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
ə → e / _{i,j}
t d → tʃ dʒ / _{u,i}
k ɡ s → ts dz ʃ / _i
t d → ts dz / _j
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
a → e / _{i,j}
{o,ɔ} ə → u i / _i
t d → tʃ dʒ / _{u,i}
s {k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → ʃ tʃ dʒ / _i
χ ʁ → ʃ {ʒ,j} / _{u,i,j}
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
ə ə̃ → ɛ ɛ̃
{t,k} {d,ɡ} → ts dz / _i
t d → tʃ dʒ / _j
j → ∅ / {ts,dz}_
V → [+ round] / w_
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
ə ə̃ → ɛ ɛ̃
{k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → tʃ dʒ / _i
V → [+ round] / w_
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
ə → e / _{i,j}
n → ŋ / _ũ
k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _i
Pogostick Man, from Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991), A Comparative Phonology of Gbe
ə → e / _{i,j}
{k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → tʃ dʒ / _i
V → [+ round] / w_
The following phonemic inventory for Proto-Nyulnyulan is adapted from Bowern (2004).
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | |
| Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ŋ |
| Stop | b | d | ɖ | ɟ | ɡ |
| Rhotic | r | ɽ | |||
| Lateral | l | ɭ | ʎ | ||
| Glide | w | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i iː | u uː | |
| Low | a aː |
(From Bowern, Claire Louise (2004), “Bardi Verb Morphology in Historical Perspective”)
Pogostick Man, from Bowern, Claire Louise (2004), “Bardi Verb Morphology in Historical Perspective”
{w,j} → ∅ / #_
{w,j} → ∅ / V0_V0
awu → o
aji → iː / when unstressed
i{w,j} → ∅ / _a, when unstressed
i → u / _ju
u → i / _j
j → ∅ / i_
ɟ → j / V_V
ɲ → ∅ / _#
ubu aba → uː aː / when stressed
ib → ∅ / _i, when unstressed
b → w / a_u
aɡu → o
i(ː)b ik → iw ij / _a
V0 → ∅ / V(C)(C)V0(C)(C)_# (with some exceptions)
Some vowel deletions, the conditioning of which the author does not elaborate upon
V → Vː / when stressed ?
Rensch (1977) reconstructs Proto-Oto-Manguean as having had the following phonemic inventory:
| Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Laryngeal | |
| Nasal | n | |||
| Plosive | t | k kʷ | ʔ | |
| Fricative | s | h | ||
| Liquid | Y | w |
| Front | Back | |
| High | i | u |
| Low | e | a |
Vowels could have had one of four tones, the first of which is denoted as a high tone.
(From Rensch, Calvin R. (1977), “Classification of the Otomanguean Languages and the Position of Tlapanec”. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 55:53 – 108)
Unless otherwise noted specifically, for Chatino correspondences, assume vowels may be either long or short.
Pogostick Man, from Upson, B.W., and Robert E. Longacre (1965), “Proto-Chatino Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics 31(4):312 – 322
t → ɾ / _{u,ẽ} when unstressed
t → ɾ / _”a
t → tʃ / _”{e,iʔ}
t → ʃ / i_i
t → s / ! “in cluster with š” (presumably [ʃ])
tʲ → s / _u
tʲ → tʃ / else
k → ɡ / a_a
kʷ → ɾ / #_ek
kʷ → b / else
ʔ → ∅ (?)
{c,tʃ} → ʃ
s → tʃ (in certain cases? Not a lot of data available on this one)
l → {lʲ,n} “under obscure conditions”
n → nʲ
nʲ → l / #_i
h → d / _a (…lolwut)
h → t / else (…again, lolwut)
j → nʲ “under obscure conditions (PC morphophonemics?)”
i → e / tʃ_
ı̃ → i
e → a / _{l,ʔn} when unstressed
e → i / {kʲ,nt}_ when stressed
e → i / in a few data sets “where obscure morphological developments (in the ultimate or penultimate syllable) have resulted in regressive assimilation of vowel quality”
ẽ → a / tʲ_
ẽ → i / h_
ẽ → i / in U[+long -stress]
ẽ → e / else
a → {i,e} “under special conditions”
Pogostick Man, from Upson, B.W., and Robert E. Longacre (1965), “Proto-Chatino Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics 31(4):312 – 322
t → tʲ / _õ (…again…lolwut)
t → tʃ / #_iç
tʲ → tʃ / _i[-long -stress]
tʲ → t / _a
kʲ → tʲ
c → tʃ / i_
tʃ → c
s → ʃ / E_ (? Not a lot of data available on this one)
ʃ → s
l n → lʲ nʲ / e_ in U[-long -stress]
ç → ʔ (? Not sure if I’m reading the phone(me)s right on this one)
e → a / _ʔ in U[-stress]
et el en → itʲ elʲ enʲ
e → i / _j
ɛ → ı̃ / S_#
ɛ → i / n_#
ɛ → e / _ʔ#, in monosyllables
Pogostick Man, from Upson, B.W., and Robert E. Longacre (1965), “Proto-Chatino Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics 31(4):312 – 322
tʲ → tj
Some consonant disharmony involving reflexes of *k, *kʷ
k → tʃ / _Ek(ʷ)
kʲ → k / _{a,ã}
kʲ → kj / else
kʷ → w / _eːj
kʷ → w / _ek
kʷ → ʍ / ku_ (medial)
kʷ → kw / else
ts → tʃ / #_{a,õ}ʔ
ts → tʃ / V[+high]_
ts → ʃ / #_ẽ
c → ts
tʃ → ts / a_
s → ʃ / V_V
s → ʃ / if /l/ is present in the same syllable
s → tʃ / #_a
ʃ → s / _{ik,e,ı̃,ẽ}
ʃ → ts / _i, in monosyllables
lʲ → l / #_ in U[-long -stress]
lʲ → lj / else
nʲ → j / _ã (with some exceptions?)
nʲ → nj / else
h → ʔ / _ã
ç → hj
hʷ → ʍ
ẽ → ı̃ / {t,h}_#
ẽ → ı̃ / _ʔ#
ẽ → ı̃ / ʔ_# “in one case”
Pogostick Man, from Upson, B.W., and Robert E. Longacre (1965), “Proto-Chatino Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics 31(4):312 – 322
NB: This set is likely very incomplete.
kʲ → tʃ
e → i / l_ when unstressed
e → i / kʲ_ when stressed
Pogostick Man, from Rensch, Calvin R. (1977), “Classification of the Otomanguean Languages and the Position of Tlapanec”. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 55:53 – 108
NB: Y here refers to some sort of palatalizing element; H, to some laryngeal.
kʷ → p
n → {n,ɲ} (the latter “under obscure conditions”)
j → l(V)
Yt Ynt Ys → tʃ dʒ ʃ
{ns,nt} nkʷ nj nw → (n)d (m)b r m
nk → {ɡ,ŋ} (the latter “under obscure conditions”)
{in,en} an → a u
{iHn,eHn,aHn} uHn → ã ũ
“No clearly distinct reflex of **un has been identified”; the author speculates that this most likely turned into /u/, but does not rule out /o/ as a reflex
e → i
ʔ → ∅ / #_
h → ʃ / _C[-voice] (? “both h and š occur before nasals, so it is possible that š has a separate source in Proto Otomanguean”)
h → CVʔV / _# (or possibly in just any final syllable?)
Callaghan (1983, 1988) reconstructs the following inventory for Proto-Utian:
| Bilabial | Coronal | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||||
| Plosive | p | t̪ | ʈ | tʃ | k kʷ | ʔ |
| Fricative | s̪ | ʂ | ʃ | h | ||
| Resonant | l ɾ | j | w |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i iː | ɨɨː | u uː |
| Mid | e eː | o oː | |
| Low | a aː |
(From Callaghan, Catherine A. (1983), “Proto-Utian Derivational Verb Morphology”. Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on Far Western American Indian Languages, Occasional Papers on Linguistics Number 11; and Callaghan, Catherine A. (1988), “Proto-Utian Stems” in In Honor of Mary Haas)
CatDoom, from Callaghan, Catherine A. (1983), “Proto-Utian Derivational Verb Morphology”. Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on Far Western American Indian Languages, Occasional Papers on Linguistics Number 11; and Callaghan, Catherine A. (1988), “Proto-Utian Stems” in In Honor of Mary Haas
ʃ → h
i$Ci → e$Ce / _C ! _ɾ
ɨ$Cɨ → e$Ce / _C ! _ɾ
e → i / _(C…)u
k → ʂ / _i
k → ʂ / i_
k → s̪ / _{ɨ,u}
k → s̪ / {ɨ,u}_
l → ɾ / ! _$ or o_
tʃ → ʂ / _#
o → a / ! o(C…)_ or _(C…){o,i}
ɨ → e / CC_#
ɨ → {e,i} / CC_
ɨ → i
CatDoom, from Callaghan, Catherine A. (1983), “Proto-Utian Derivational Verb Morphology”. Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on Far Western American Indian Languages, Occasional Papers on Linguistics Number 11; and Callaghan, Catherine A. (1988), “Proto-Utian Stems” in In Honor of Mary Haas
tʲ ʂ → j ʃ
kʷ → k / #_
kʷ → w / else
l → ɾ / V_V
a → e / il_
o → u / _(C…)i
CatDoom, from Callaghan, Catherine A. (1983), “Proto-Utian Derivational Verb Morphology”. Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on Far Western American Indian Languages, Occasional Papers on Linguistics Number 11; and Callaghan, Catherine A. (1988), “Proto-Utian Stems” in In Honor of Mary Haas
kʷ ʃ → w ʂ
ʈ → tʃ / _e
ʈ → tʃ / e_
CatDoom, from Callaghan, Catherine A. (1983), “Proto-Utian Derivational Verb Morphology”. Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on Far Western American Indian Languages, Occasional Papers on Linguistics Number 11; and Callaghan, Catherine A. (1988), “Proto-Utian Stems” in In Honor of Mary Haas
s̪ → ʂ
ʈ → tʃ / {aː,oː}_
ɨ → {u,i}
CatDoom, from Callaghan, Catherine A. (1983), “Proto-Utian Derivational Verb Morphology”. Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on Far Western American Indian Languages, Occasional Papers on Linguistics Number 11; and Callaghan, Catherine A. (1988), “Proto-Utian Stems” in In Honor of Mary Haas
ʂ → s̪
ʈ → {ʈ,ts,tʃ} / _{j,ɾ}
kʷ → k / #_
kʷ → {k,w} / else
l → ɾ / V_V
a → e / il_
o → u / _(C…)i
CatDoom, from Callaghan, Catherine A. (1983), “Proto-Utian Derivational Verb Morphology”. Proceedings of the 1982 Conference on Far Western American Indian Languages, Occasional Papers on Linguistics Number 11; and Callaghan, Catherine A. (1988), “Proto-Utian Stems” in In Honor of Mary Haas
tʲ → tʃ
h → {h,x,ʔ}
ʈ → {ʈ,tʃ} / {aː,oː}_
ʈ → {ʈ,tʃ} / {i,e,o}$_
ʈ → {ʈ,tʃ} / _{j,ɾ}
kʷ → k / #_
kʷ → {k,w} / else
l → ɾ / V_V
a → e / il_
i → e / _C(C)oC
o → u / _(C…)i
Shepherd (2005) reconstructs the following inventory for Proto-Wintun:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||||
| Plosive | p pʰ pʼ b | t tʰ tʼ d | k kʰ kʼ ɡ | q qʰ qʼ | ʔ | |
| Fricative | s ɬ | x | χ | h | ||
| Affricate | tɬʼ | tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ | ||||
| Liquid | w | r l | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i iː | u uː | |
| Mid | e eː | o oː | |
| Low | a aː |
Shepherd further notes that “PW vowel length before continuants appears to be non-distinctive in many instances”.
(From Shepherd, Alice (2005), “Proto-Wintun”. UC Publications in Linguistics. <http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8dq1f3jj>)
Pogostick Man, from Shepherd, Alice (2005), “Proto-Wintun”. UC Publications in Linguistics. <http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8dq1f3jj>
VrV → {Vː,M}
r → j / _#
tʃʰ kʰ qʰ {x,χ} → tʃ k(ʰ) {kʰ,qʰ,χ} kʰ
Pogostick Man, from Shepherd, Alice (2005), “Proto-Wintun”. UC Publications in Linguistics. <http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8dq1f3jj>
tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ → t tʰ tʼ
k(ʰ) kʼ q(ʰ) qʼ → tʃ(h) tʃʼ kʰ kʼ
x χ → s h
Pogostick Man, from Shepherd, Alice (2005), “Proto-Wintun”. UC Publications in Linguistics. <http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8dq1f3jj>
r → {r,j}
tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ → t tʰ tʼ
k(ʰ) kʼ q(ʰ) qʼ → tʃ(ʰ) tʃʼ k(ʰ) kʼ
x → s
χ → ∅ (?)
Pogostick Man, from Shepherd, Alice (2005), “Proto-Wintun”. UC Publications in Linguistics. <http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8dq1f3jj>
tʃʰ → tʃ
kʰ qʰ → k χ
Whistler and Golla (1986) reconstruct the following phonological inventory for Proto-Yokuts:
| Labial | Dental | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m mˀ | n nˀ | ŋ ŋˀ | |||
| Stop | p pʰ pʼ | t tʰ tʼ | ʈ ʈʰ ʈʼ | k kʰ kʼ | ʔ | |
| Affricate | (ts) tsʰ tsʼ | |||||
| Fricative | s | ʂ | x | h | ||
| Approximant | l lˀ | j jˀ | w wˀ |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i iː | ɨ ɨː | u uː |
| Mid | o oː | ||
| Low | a aː |
It is further instructive to note some morphophonetic processes in Proto-Yokuts:
(From Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986))
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
iː ɨː uː → eː əː oː (this change sometimes did not occur)
eː əː → e ə (as a result of ablaut)
o → u / _Ci
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
t tʰ tʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ / #_ “(in some words, conditioning factors unclear)”
V[+ high] → a / V[+ high]C_(C)#
tʰ → s / #_u
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
∅ → h / V(ː)_, when stressed (only sometimes, “particularly before consonants”)
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
ɨ(ː) ə(ː) → i(ː) e(ː)
Vʔ → Vː / stressed
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
s → ʃ
ts tsʰ tsʼ → tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
t tʰ tʼ → tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ / #_ “(in some words, conditioning factors unclear)”
l → t
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
ʂ → s “(sometimes remains allophonically in word-initial position before back vowels, but not consistently)”
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
“ʃ may have merged with ʂ in some positions”
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
ɨ(ː) ə(ː) → i(ː) e(ː)
ŋ → n
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
p t ʈ k → b d ɖ ɡ
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
i → u / uC_
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
“o-raising rule (o > u / _Ci) ceases to be productive”
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
/s ʃ ʂ/ may be a single alternating phoneme
ʈ ʈʰ ʈʼ → tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ
tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
ʈ ʈʰ ʈʼ → ʈʂ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʼ “(ʈʼ remains unchanged in careful speech)”
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
ʃ → s
tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ (except in “lexicalized diminutives”, where these go to ʈʂ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʼ)
CatDoom, from Whistler, Kenneth W., and Golla, Victor (1986), “Proto-Yokuts Reconsidered”. International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1986)
s → ʃ / _i
t tʰ tʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ / #_ “(in some words; conditioning factors unclear)”
ts tsʰ tsʼ → tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ / _i
ɨ(ː) → i(ː)
{u,a} → e / _CVC#, when stressed (short only)
i → e / _CVC#, when stressed (! _H, short only)
V → e / C”VC_
V → i / C”iC_
V → u / C”uC_
V → o / C”oC_
Orr and Longacre (1968) reconstruct Proto-Quechumaran as having the following inventory:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | |||||
| Plosive | p | t | k | q | ʔ | |||
| Fricative | ɸ | s | ʃ | ʂ | χ | h | ||
| Affricate | ts | tʃ | ʈʂ | |||||
| Liquid | r l | ʎ | ||||||
| Semivowel | j | w |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Low | a |
(From Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555)
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ qʼ → p t tʃ k q
h → ∅ / {p,t,k,q}_
q → χ
χ → q / n_
ts(h) tʃh → tʃ s
ʈʂ → s / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ʈʂʼ → tʃʼ
ɸ(ʼ,ʰ) → p
ʃ ʂ → s h
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
qh → h / _r
ph th kh qh → pʰ tʰ kʰ qʰ
{k,q} → h / _{C,#}
ts {tsh,tʃh} → tʃ tʃʰ
tʃ → ʃ / _q
tʃʼ → tʃ
ʈʂ → s / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ʈʂʼ → tʃʼ
ɸ(ʼ) ɸh → p(ʼ) pʰ
ʃ → s
ʂ → h / _{a,i}
ʂ → ∅ / _u
χ → qʰ / #_
j → ∅ / i_{a,u}
j → ∅ / u_ʎ
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
h → ∅ / nq_
h → ∅ / #q_{i,u}
ph → p / #_VA
ph → p / #_aC[+sibilant]
pʼ → p/ #_C[+sibilant]
ph → p / a_ (?)
ph → pʰ
kh → k / r_
kh → k / #_a
kh → k / #_ “in a word with two back vowels”
kh qh → kʰ qʰ
ts tsh → tʃ tʃʰ
tʃ → s / _q
tʃh → s / _E
{tʃh,tʃʼ} → tʃ
ʈʂ → s / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ʈʂʼ → tʃ / n_
ʈʂʼ → tʃʼ
ɸ(ʼ) ɸh → p(ʼ) pʰ
ʃ ʂ → s h
χ → qʰ / #_
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ qʼ → p t ts k q
h → ∅ / p_
tʰ → t
q → q͡χ
ts(h) tʃ → tʃ ts
tʃ → ts / _q
ʈʂ → s / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ɸ(ʼ,ʰ) → p
ʂ → ʃ / _a
ʂ → h / _{i,u}
ɲ → n
aw aj {uj,ij} → uː eː iː
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ → p t k q
p → b / m_
t(ʰ) → d / n_
tʰ → t
k → ɡ / n_
k → ɡ / _{L,j}
h → ∅ / ts_
tʃʼ → tʃ
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ɸ(ʼ,ʰ) → p
ʂ → s
h → ∅ / #_
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
q → h / {r,s}_
pʼ kʼ qʼ → p k q
p → b / m_
t(ʰ) → d / n_
tʼ → tʰ / #_i
tʼ → t
k → ɡ / _#
k → ɡ / n_
k → ɡ / _{L,j}
kʼ → h / j_
ts → dz / ! #_
h → ∅ / ts_
tʃ → ʃ / _q
tʃh → ʃ
tʃʼ → tʃ
ʈʂ → ʃ / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ɸ → p / r_
{ɸʼ,ɸh} → ɸ
ʂ → ʃ
χ → h #_
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
q → k
qh → kʰ / _i ! _i{ʃ,tʃ}
qh → k
pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ → p t k q
p → b / m_
t(ʰ) → d / n_
tʼ → tʰ / #_i
k → h / _#
k → ɡ / _{L,j}
kh → kʰ / #_{i,u}
kh → k
k ts → ɡ dz / n_
h → ∅ / ts_
tʃh → ʃ
tʃʼ → tʃ
ʈʂ → s / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ʈʂʼ → ts
ɸ → pʰ / _V
ɸ → b / _j
s → ʃ / _C[+alveolar]
ʂ → ʃ
χ → kʰ #_
ɲ → n / ! h_i
ʎ → ʒ / _{a,u}
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ qʼ → p t tʃ k q
h → ∅ / {p,t,k}_
{k,q} → h / _{C,#}
k → c / j_ (?)
ts(h) → tʃ
tʃ → ʃ / _q
ʈʂ → ʃ / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ɸ(ʼ,ʰ) → p
ʃ → s / ! i_i or _S
ʂ → ∅ / _{a,i}
ʂ → h / _u
h → ∅ / #_
ʎ → ʒ / _{a,u}
w → ∅ / V_V
w → m / _%N
j → ∅ / i_{a,u}
j → ∅ / u_ʎ
Pogostick Man, from Orr, Carolyn, and Robert E. Longacre (1968), “Proto-Quechumaran”. Language 44(3):528 – 555
q(h) → k
pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ → p t k q
p → b / m_
t(ʰ) → d / n_
tʰ → t
k → ɡ / n_
k → ɡ / _{L,j}
h → ∅ / ts_
tʃ → ʃ / _C
tʃh → ʃ
tʃʼ → tʃ
ʈʂ → ʃ / _K
ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
ʈʂʼ → tʃ
ɸ(ʼ,ʰ) → p
ʂ → ʃ
h → ∅ / #_
χ → k / #_
ɲ → n / _i
w → ∅ / #_i
Kuipers (1981) gives the following reconstruction for the Proto-Salish phoneme inventory (converted into IPA):
| Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Postvelar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m mˀ | n nˀ | ||||
| Stop | p pʼ | t tʼ | k kʷ kʼ kʷʼ | q qʷ qʼ qʷʼ | ʔ | |
| Fricative | s ɬ | x xʷ | χ χʷ | h | ||
| Affricate | ts tsʼ tɬʼ | |||||
| Resonant | r rˀ l lˀ | j jˀ | ɰ ɰˀ w wˀ | ʕ ʕʷ ʕˀ ʕʷˀ |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | ə | ||
| Low | a |
For the following changes, the superscript numerals 1, 2, and 3 refer to low, mid, and high tones, respectively. Not all Salishan languages have all three tones; for most, there is no tone 2 (mid). Vowel pairs in between curly braces 〈{ }〉 and with a tilde between are pairs which apparently existed in some sort of ablaut-like alternation.
(From Kuipers, Aert H. (1981), “On Reconstructing the Proto-Salish Sound System”. International Journal of American Linguistics 47(4):323 – 335; and Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages)
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
ts(ʼ) → θ(ʼ)
l(ʲ) → w / _u
l(ʲ) → w / u_
l(ʲ) → j / else
s → ∅ / #_C
s → ∅ / #_{wa,wi}
w j → ɡ dʒ / _V
V3ʔ → V3(ː)ʔ / _#
ʔ → ∅ V3_RV
ʔ → ∅ V3R_V
{a3~ə3} → {ə3,a3}
{a3~i3} → i3
{a1~i1} → {a1,ə1}
{i3~ə3} → ə3
{i3~ə1} → {ə1,i1,i3}
{i1~ə1} → i1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
n → l
ʔn → ∅ / m_
ts(ʼ) tʃ(ʼ) → θ(ʼ) ts(ʼ)
lʲ → l
V3h → V3ː / _C
V3ʔ → V3(ː) / _#
ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
V3ʔ → V3ː / _O
∅ → V0 / ”V03_
V3ʔR → V3ːR
ʔ → ∅ / VR_V3
lʔn → lː / V3_V
ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
u3 {u1,a1} a3 i1 → a3 ə1 ɛ3 {i1,ə1}
{u3~ə3} → {o3,ə3,a3}
{a3~ə3} → {ɛ3,ə3}
{a3~i3} → ɛ3
{i3~e3} → {ə3,i3}
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → ə1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
ts(ʼ) tʃ(ʼ) → θ(ʼ) ts(ʼ)
s → ʃ / _xʷ
xʲ → ʃ
V3h → V3ː / _C
V03ʔ(V0) → {V03ː,V03ʔV0}
V3ʔR → {V3ʔR,V3ːRʔ} / _V
a3 u3 {a1,u1} i1 → ɛ3 a3 ə1 {i1,ə1}
{a3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~i3} → a3
{a1~i1} → ə1
{i3~e3} → {ə3,i3}
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → ə1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
ʔn → ∅ / m_
ts(ʼ) tʃ(ʼ) → θ(ʼ) ts(ʼ)
lʲ → l
V3h → V3ː / _C
V3ʔ → V3{ː,ʔ} / _O
V03ʔV0 → {V3ː,V03ʔV0}
V3ʔR → {V3ʔR,V3ːRʔ} / _V
u3 {u1,a1} a3 i1 → a3 ə1 ɛ3 {i1,ə1}
{u3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~ə3} → {ɛ3,ə3}
{a3~i3} → {a3,ɛ3}
{a1~i1} → {ə1,ɛ1}
{i3~e3} → {ə3,i3}
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → ə1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
mʔn → nʔ
p(ʼ) m → ts(ʼ) ŋ / ! _u
l(ʲ) → j
xʲ → {s,ʃ} (the latter mainly from borrowings?)
tʃ → ts
tʃʼ → tsʼ / medially
w j → kʷ tʃ / _V
V03ʔ(V0) → V03ʔV0
u1 → ə1
a3 → u3 / {Cʷ[+uvular],Kʷ,w}
a3 → u3 / _{Cu,Cʷ[+uvular],w}
a1 → ə1
{u3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~i3} → ə3
{a1~i1} → ə1
{i3~ə3} → ə3
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → ə1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
mʔn → d
m n → b d
lʲ → l
s → {ʃ,s} / _xʷ
xʲ → ʃ
w j → ɡʷ dz / _V
V3h → V3{ː,ʔ} / _C
V3ʔ → V3(ʔ) / _O
Rʔ → ʔR / V3C
i1 → {i1,ə1}
{u3~ə3} → a3
{a3~ə3} → {ə3,a3}
{a1~i1} → i1
{i3~ə3} → {i1,ə1}
{i3~ə1} → {i3,i1}
{i1~ə1} → {ə1,i1}
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
n → ∅ / mʔ_
lʲ → l
s → {s,ʃ} / _xʷ
s → ʃ / #_{xʲ,w{i,a},qʷa}
xʲ → ʃ
∅ → V0 / ”V03ʔ_
ʔR → {ʔS,R} / V3_V
ʔ → ∅ / VR_V3
ʔ → ∅ / V3R_{C,#}
ʔ → ∅ / V1R_#
ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
a1 u3 u1 i1 → æ2 o3 o1 i2
ə1 → æ2 / a3C(C)_
ə1 → æ2 / _C(C)a3
ə1 → æ2 / in some other unspecified circumstances
{u3~ə3} → o3
{a3~ə3} → æ3
{a3~i3} → æ3
{a1~i1} → æ2
{i3~e3} → {i3.ə3}
{i3~ə1} → i3
{i1~ə1} → {i2,ə1}
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
p(’) m → tʃ(’) ŋ / ! _u
mʔ → ∅ / _n
ts → s
lʲ → l
s → ʃ / _xʷ
tʃ → s
tʃ’ → ts’ / medially
j → tʃ / _V
ʔ → ∅ / V3l_nV
ʔ → {∅,ʔ} / V3R_{C,#}
u3 u1 → o3 ə1
a3 → o3 / {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_
a3 → o3 / _{Cu,C[+ uvular]ʷ,w}
a3 → e3 / else
a1 → ə1
{u3~ə3} → ə1
{a3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~i3} → ə3
{a1~i1} → ə1
{i3~e3} → ə3
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → ə1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
p(’) m → tʃ(’) ŋ / ! _u
mʔn → nʔ
ts ts’ → {θ,s} θ’
lʲ → l
s → {ʃ,s} / _xʷ
xʲ → s
tʃ → s
tʃ’ → θ’ / medially
j w → tʃ kʷ / _V
V3h → V3(ː) / _C
ʔR → Rʔ / V3_V
u3 u1 → a3 ə1
a3 → e3 / ! {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_ or when _{Cu,C[+ uvular]ʷ,w}
a1 → ə1
{a3~ə3} → {ə3,e3}
{a3~i3} → ə3
{a1~i1} → ə1
{i3~e3} → {ə3,i3}
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → {ə1,i1}
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
p(’) m → tʃ(’) ŋ / ! _u
mʔn → nʔ
ts → s
lʲ → l
s → {ʃ,s} / _xʷ
xʲ → {s,ʃ} (the latter mainly from borrowings?)
tʃ’ → ts’ / medially
j w → tʃ kʷ / _V
V3h → V3ː / _C
u3 u1 → a3 ə1
a3 → a3 / {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_
a3 → a3 / _{Cu,C[+ uvular]ʷ,w}
a1 → ə1
{u3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~i3} → ə3
{a1~i1} → {ə1,e1}
{i3~e3} → ə3
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → ə1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
p(’) m → tʃ(’) ŋ / ! _u
mʔn → nʔ
ts → s
l(ʲ) → j
xʲ → {s,ʃ} (the latter mainly from borrowings?)
tʃ → s
tʃ’ → ts’ / medially
j w → tʃ kʷ / _V
u3 u1 → a3 ə1
a3 → {a3,o3} / {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_
a3 → e3
a1 → ə1
{u3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~i3} → ə3
{a1~i1} → ə1
{i3~e3} → ə3
{i3~ə1} → ə1
{i1~ə1} → ə1
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
ts ts’ → s ts’
lʲ → l
xʲ → ʃ
ʔ → ∅ / V3_O
ʔ → ∅ / V3R_{V,#}
i1 → ə1
{a3~ə3} → ə3
{a1~i1} → {i1,ə1}
{i3~e3} → {ə3,i3}
{i3~ə1} → i3
{i1~ə1} → {i1,∅}
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
ʔ → ∅ / m_n
lʲ → l
xʲ → ʃ
ʔ → ∅ / V_V3
ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
i1 → {i1,ə1j}
{u3~ə3} → u3
{a3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~i3} → i3
{a1~i1} → {i1,ə1}
{i3~e3} → {ə3,i3}
{i3~ə1} → i3
{i1~ə1} → {i1,∅}
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
n → ∅ / mʔ_
lʲ → j
xʲ → ʃ
ʔR → Rʔ / V3_V
u1 → {u1,ə1}
{u3~ə3} → ə3
{a3~ə3} → {a3,ə3}
{a3~i3} → i3
{a1~i1} → i1
{i3~e3} → {ə3,i3}
{i3~ə1} → i3
{i1~ə1} → {i1,∅}
Pogostick Man, from Galloway, Brent (1982), “Proto-Central Salish Phonology and Sound Correspondences”. From the 17th International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
m n → b d
lʲ → l
s → {ʃ,s} / _xʷ
xʲ → ʃ
ʔR → ʔ{R,b} / V3_V
Rʔ → ʔR / V3_#
ʔ → ∅ / V1R_#
ʔ → ∅ / V3R_C
u3 u1 → o3 ə1
{a3~ə3} → {ə3,a3}
{a3~i3} → a3
{a1~i1} → {i1,ə1}
{i3~e3} → {i3,ə3}
{i3~ə1} → {i3,i1}
{i1~ə1} → i1
Pogostick Man, from Kinkade, Dale M. “Shifts of Nasals to Vowels in Interior Salish”
nˀ → aʔ / _# (all other Interior Salishan languages have /eʔ/ in this position)
Pogostick Man, from Kinkade, Dale M. “Shifts of Nasals to Vowels in Interior Salish”
N[- glottalized] → e / _O[+ same POA] “‘in primary forms’”
n̩ → e / n_ (this is admittedly a bit conjectural; the paper is not being very clear here)
Pogostick Man, from Kinkade, Dale M. “Shifts of Nasals to Vowels in Interior Salish”
em emˀ → u uʔ / w_ in U[- stressed]
em emˀ → a aʔ / in U[- stressed] ! {p(’),m(ˀ)}_
en enˀ → i iʔ / {ts(’),s,j(ˀ)}_ in U[- stressed]
en enˀ → a ʔ / in U[- stressed] ! {t(’),lʲ,{n,l}(ˀ)}_
Pogostick Man, from Kinkade, Dale M. “Shifts of Nasals to Vowels in Interior Salish”
n nˀ → i iʔ / C_s
n nˀ → i iʔ / _{i,ʃ} (sporadic)
Ran & thedukeofnuke, from Handel, Z. (1998), The Medial Systems of Old Chinese and Proto-Sino-Tibetan
NB: “P T Ṭ K represent labial, dental, retroflex, and velar obstruents respectively. *r is reconstructed as being an approximant ɹ. . . .PST and OC lacked any initial/medial clusters of the form Tr- and Tl-. . . .The initials and medials for Old Chinese are the same as those for PST. Note that initial consonants separated by a hyphen (e.g., C-r-) are derived from prefixes and are not true consonant clusters.
(C-)r- → l-
s(-)r → ʂ-
r → ∅ / C_-
r-T- → Ṭ
(C-)l- → {d,ji}-
s-l- → {tʰ,z}-
l → ∅ / s_-
{m,ŋ}l- → dʑ-
Cl- → T(ʑ)-
Kw → Kʷ- / _a-
Kwə- → Kʷɨ-
w → r → ∅ / P_-
Ran, from Hsueh, F.S. (1975), Phonology of Old Mandarin
NB: Ran says, “The author uses V1, V2, V3, V4, Vn, Vch, and Vta to represent Late Middle Chinese vowels. I am going to very tentatively assign the values of o, a, ia, e,?, a(ch) and a(ta) to these vowels [emphasis added]. These should be taken as orthographical convenience rather than actual speculation.” It should be noted that the vowel represented by <?> could be palatalized. Ran adds, “I am also going to number tones according to their traditional order, i.e. F1, F2, F3, F4, F5. Since tones change rapidly, it is impossible to accurately reconstruct their values; we can only know how many there were, and agree on an order to renumerate them. Middle Chinese starts out with no F2.” For the purposes of this list of sound changes, tones are superscript numbers following vowel markers.
∅ → w / P_V
xɦ → ∅ / _j(w){?,ia,a(ta)}
Cʲ → C {Ạ,F̣}_
Cʲ → C̣
ɳ → ɽ
V1 → V2 / in syllables with /ɦ/, a nasal, or a liquid
V3 → V4 / in syllables with /ɦ/
? → ∅
V5 → V2 / in syllables with /ɦ/
V5 → V4 / in syllables with a nasal or liquid
V5 → V3 / else
ɦ → h / S_V2
ɦ → ∅ / else
Cʲ → C / {f,v}_
w → o / Cʲ_?w
i → ∅ / C(w)_a
ia → e / else
C → Cʲ / {K,C[+pharyngeal]}_{a,a(ch)}
o → a / C_w ! C = {K,C[+pharyngeal]}
ŋ → n / n_Cʲa(ta)
ŋ → ∅ / #_ ! #_o(w)
k → j / {e,a,o}_
k → w / V_
{o,a} {a(ta),a(ch)} → e a / _ŋ
{a(ta),a(ch)} → o / else
? → o / _ŋ
{Aʲ,Fʲ}[+alveolar] →{A,F} / _?ʲ
ʈ → ʈʂ / _r
C → Cʲ / ?ʲ{p,t}_
{p,t} → ∅ / V_
o → a / Cʲ_w
∅ → w / C_o# ! C = {K,C[+pharyngeal]}
w → ∅ / C̣Cʲ_?w (“optional”)
w → ∅ / w?_
? → a / Cw_Cʲ
{o,e} → ? / _Cʲ
wʲ → w / _?Cʲ
∅ → w / C̣_aŋ
e → o / w_ŋ
wʲ → w / _aŋ
wʲ → w / C̣_oŋ
Ran, from Hsueh, F.S. (1975), Phonology of Old Mandarin
ŋ → ∅ / #_
{e,o} → a / _w
m → n / V_
o → e / _ŋ
i → e / C_ʔ
ʔ → ∅
j → ∅ / jî_
#r…î# → #î…r
v → ∅
j → ∅ / C̣_
o → e / _#
î → e / _C# ! C = r
j → ∅ / C_weŋ
k(ʰ) h → ɕ͡(ʰ) ɕ / _j
Pogostick Man, from Coblin, W. South (2000), “A Diachronic Study of Míng Guānhuà Phonology”. Monumenta Serica 48:267 – 335
Initials:
b d dz ɡ → {p,pʼ} {t,tʼ} {ts,tsʼ} {k,kʼ}
ŋ → ∅ / _{i,j,w,y}
ŋ → ∅ / _u / _V
w → u / _V
v ʋ → f v
z → {s,tsʼ} (the former “without exception” “in oblique tone words”)
ɖʐ →ʈʂ / “[i]n oblique tone syllables”
ɖʐ → ʈʂʼ / “in píng-tone syllables”
ʐ → ʂ
r → ʐ (Apparently there was some situation where this went to ∅, and then something happened with the output syllable being [ɚ])
ʔ → ŋ / _V[-high]
ʔ → ∅ / _{j,i,y}
ʔ → ∅ / _u (not always? Perhaps some variation with [ɣ] here?)
ɣ → x
j → i
There seems to ahve been some stuff going on with palatalized [ŋ] → {ɲ,n} but it seems highly dialectal and I’m not entirely sure just what exactly was going on here
w → {v,u}
uj → (ɣ)u
Finals:
m → n
long-tail vowel thing → i (or [truncated vowel-thing] “where GH sibilant initial variants occur”)
{long-tail vowel thingʔ,əʔ} → ɛʔ
i → [long-tail vowel thing] / C̣_ (“sometimes”, in “variant readings”); when following /ʂ ʐ/, sometimes yields [ʂi], other times [s truncated vowel-thing]
iʔ iw → eʔ ew / C̣_ (the latter with variant iɛu?)
iʔ → ieʔ (→ i[truncated vowel-thing]ʔ?)
uʔ → oʔ (occasionally → uɛʔ?)
uj → u(ɛ)i / m_
uj → uɛi / {P,C[+guttural],∅}_
uj → ui / {C[+dental],C[+sibilant]}_
ujʔ → uɛʔ (dialectally → uɔʔ?)
un → uɛn / ! {C[+dental],C[+sibilant]}_
uɛn → ɛn / ʋ_
uŋ → oŋ (in one source?)
juŋ → iuŋ / _{∅,x,ʋ,ʔ}
juŋ → iuŋ / _ɡ[+píng tone]
juŋ → uŋ (→ oŋ dialectally?)
jujŋ ujŋ → iuŋ uŋ
y → ɥ (→ y~u dialectally?) / C̣_
yʔ → yɛʔ / {l,C[+dental +sibilant]}_ in “QYS -juət-type” finals, dialectally?
yʔ → oʔ (eventually → {ʊʔ,(i)uʔ?) / {l,C[+dental +sibilant]}_, in “QYS -k-types”
yʔ → yʔ(~yɛʔ?) / {∅,C[+guttural]}, in -juət-types
yʔ → ioʔ (→ iʊʔ dialectally?) / {∅,C[+guttural]}_, in -k-types
yʔ → {ɥʔ,yʔ,uʔ} / C̣, in -juət-types
yʔ → oʔ (→ ʊʔ?) / C̣_, in -k-types
yjʔ → yʔ
yn → un / C̣_ (may have stayed yn or → ɥn in at least one area?)
je jeʔ yeʔ → ɛ ɛʔ uɛʔ / C̣_
je jeʔ → iɛ iɛʔ
yeʔ → yɛʔ (→ {uɔʔ,yɔʔ} in southern speech?)
ye jej → yɛ i
jew → au / C̣(C?)_
jew → iau / else
{jem,jen} → iɛn / sometimes after C̣_ (but ! ʐ_) (only in one variety?)
yen → uɛn / C̣_
yen → yɛn
ɔ → a / in two cases cited; extremely rare change
wɔ → ɔ (occasionally → uɔ after a guttural?)
wɔʔ → uɔʔ / C[+guttural]_
wɔʔ → ɔʔ / else
ɔn → an; “[t]his final occurs exclusively after SR gutturals”
wɔn ja wa → uɔn ia ua
aʔ → ɔʔ / C[+guttural]_
jaʔ → iaʔ
waʔ → aʔ / C[+labiodental]_
waʔ → uaʔ
aj jaj waj aw jaw → ai iai uai au iau
awʔ → ɔʔ (“Trigault gives a variant in -ɛʔ, which becomes general in the later GH varieties”)
{jawʔ,wawʔ} → ɔʔ / C̣_
jawʔ wawʔ → iɔʔ uɔʔ
am → an
{jam,jan} → iɛn
wan → an / C[+labiodental]_
wan → uan / else
aŋ jaŋ → uaŋ aŋ / C̣_
waŋ → uaŋ
əjʔ əw {əm,ən} → eʔ ɛu ɛn
əjŋ → ɛn (varies with ɛn?)
Tones:
qı̄ng píng → yı̄n píng
zhuó píng → yáng píng
qı̄ng shăng → shăng
zhuó shăng → qù
(There seems to be some conflict between shăng tones and qù tones, the latter noted as being the spoken forms)
Pogostick Man, from Jacques, Guillaume, and Alexis Michaud (2011), “Approaching the historical phonology of three highly eroded Sino-Tibetan languages: Naxi, Na and Laze”. Diachronica 28:4 (2011), 468 – 498
a u i iN → e y ɯ i / T_%
a → i / {ŋ,w}_%
a → wɤ / {K,ŋ}w_%
{a,i} → ɯ / R_%
a → ie / ! K_%
a aS → ɑ {ɑ,u}
iN → æ / {P,C}r_%
i → v̩ / m_%
u o → v̩ u
B → o / {qʰ,(N)q}_
V% → low tone
{Np,mb} → b / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred at other POAs)
{r,s}p(ʰ) {r,s}{Np,(m)b} → f v / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred at other POAs)
{r,s}k {r,s}Nk → f w / _V
S{b,ɡ} Sk → v h / _V
{r,s}l {r,s}n → l̥ N̥ / %_V
n̥ → l̥ / %_V
N̥V → hṼ
l̥ → ɬ / %_V
Pogostick Man, from Jacques, Guillaume, and Alexis Michaud (2011), “Approaching the historical phonology of three highly eroded Sino-Tibetan languages: Naxi, Na and Laze”. Diachronica 28:4 (2011), 468 – 498
a → e / {R,T}_%
a → wɤ / {K,ŋ}w_%
a → i / ! K_%
iN → æ / {P,C}r_
{iN,u} i → i ɯ / T_
i → ɯ / {R,Kr}_
i → v̩ / m_
u o → v̩ u
B → ɔ / {qʰ,(N)q}_
V% → high rising
{Np,mb} → b / _V
{r,s}pʰ {r,s}{(N)p,(m)b} → pʰ p b / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred with stops at other POAs)
{r,s}k {r,s}Nk → k ʁ / _V
S{b,ɡ} Sk → ∅ h
n̥ → l̥ / %_V
N̥V → hṼ
l̥ → ɬ / %_V
Pogostick Man, from Jacques, Guillaume, and Alexis Michaud (2011), “Approaching the historical phonology of three highly eroded Sino-Tibetan languages: Naxi, Na and Laze”. Diachronica 28:4 (2011), 468 – 498
a iN {i,u} → e ɚɯ / T_%
a → i / ŋ_%
a → ɯ / {R,w}_%
a → wa / {K,ŋ}w_%
a → e / ! K_%
a aS → ɑ {ɑ,o} / _%
iN → ɚ / {P,C}r_%
i → ɯ / {R,kr}_%
u → ɚ / Pr_%
u o → v̩ u
B → v̩ / {qʰ,(ŋ)q}_
V% → mid tone / C_ru
V% → high tone / else
N → ∅ / _pV
{r,s}pʰ {r,s}(N)p {r,s}b {r,s}mb → pʰ p b mb / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred with stops at other POAs)
{r,s}(N)k → k / _V
Sb Sk Sɡ → b ? ɡ / _V
n̥ → l̥ → h / %_V
{r,s} → ∅ / %_V
{r,s}N → N̥ → hṼ → hV
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
p b çp çb sP rP Np Nb pr {br,pj} bj → pʰ p ʝb çp sp rpʰ mpʰ mb br pʰj pj
P → p / l_
t d Nt Nd st sd çT tr (ç)dr KT → tʰ t Ntʰ md zd st çtj trh (ç)tr kt
k sk kr ɡ Pɡ sɡ Nɡ (s)ɡr çK rK Kç → kʰ zɡw dr Nɡ pk sk mk (s)kr çk rɡj ɡçkr
(ʔ)kj (s)ɡj Nkj → (k)tç (s)kj Ndʒ
çr Nç → dr mkʰj
K → ʔ / _s
K → k / _ç
C[+ sibilant] → s / _w
Pç → mʃ
TS → dʒ / l_
NTS PTS KTS sTS çTS → {Ndz,mts} kts(ʰ) ptsʰ sts {sts,rj}
(r)ts (r)dz → (r)tsʰ (r)ts
∅ → j / çm_
N → m / _{ŋ.nj}
rnj → rɲ ?
w → ʔ / something to do with either back vowels or prefixes
Rhymes:
n → ∅ / a_
ŋ → ∅ / i_
u → a / _k
u → i / _{r,s}
o → e / _s
a → e / _m
aj → i
ew iw → im ju
i → e / _s
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
b → m / _j
p çp (ç)b rP Np Nb pr {br,pj} → p. ç.w (ç)p rp. kj m.p n.br p.j
P → p / l_
t st tr d sd (ç)dr Nt çT KT → t. s.d tr. t s.t (ç.)tr m.t. n.dr ɡ.t
r → ∅ / _t
çK → ç.k
N → ∅ / _ɡ
sk rK → j sɡ
kj Nkj ʔkj ɡj sɡj → kj. nj ɡ.tsʰ kj skj.
kr (s)ɡr → n.br (s)kr
C[+ sibilant] → s / _w
K → ɡ. / _ç
Nç → n.pj.
çl → sj
Kts → ɡ.tsʰ.
lTS → l.dz
ts (r)dz dʒ PTS KTS sTS çTS → {tsʰ,s} (r)ts tsʰ ɡ.ts s.{ts,pj} {s.ts,br}
rm rn → mj rw
çm çnj → ç.n
N → m. / _ŋ
Nn → m / _j
w → ∅ / ŋ_
rnj → r.mj
j → ∅ / n_
Rhymes:
ut uk → ud oɡ
s → ∅ / u_
uj → ui
ok → iɡ
o → e / _l
oj → oi
a ap at ar am aj → e eb e(d) er om e.i
{k,j} → ∅ / i_
e → i / _#
et ej → o e.i
iw → jo
i → e / _m
ip it → ib o
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
NB: These changes are likely very incomplete. The source did not have much to say about this language.
Initials:
p k ts → p. k. tʃ.
NTS → mnj
m → mt.
C[+ sibilant]w → s
çl → rts
Finals:
k → ∅ / {u,a}_
or → ro
an {at.is} → o ie
t → ∅ / i_
Pogostick Man, from Jacques, Guillaume (2004), “Phonologie et Morphologie du Japhug (rGyalrong)”. Université Paris-Diderot - Paris VII <tel-00138568>. <https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/138568/filename/these-japhug.pdf>
NB: This source is in French and looks to at least sometimes use a transcription that isn’t IPA.
u o → ɯ u / _#
aŋ → o / _#
ɔk → ɤɣ / _#
ɔ → ɤ / _{t,r}# (possibly also _s# dialectally)
a → o / _m#
ʑ j → ndʑ ʑ
b → w / #{z,r}_
ŋ → m / #_kʰ
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
p b pr br çp → p.j p br pj ʃb
d(r) → t
çT → ʃt
r → s / _k
k (N)ɡ → k. (m)k
Nkj ɡj sɡj → mj ts stʃj
sɡr → skr
C[+ sibilant]w ç Pç Nç çl → s ʂ ʃ mʃ ʃl
ts {dz,KTS} NTS rdz dzl dʒ → s ts {dz,mtʃ.} rts tsl tʃ.
ç → ʃ / _N
ŋ(w) N{ŋ,nj} → ȵ mɳ
j → ∅ / {ʃ,r}n_
Rhymes:
u → o / _k
uj → os
op → u
at → {at,ɛ,ed}
an → ia
ŋ → ɳ / {o,a}_
aj → oi
e → i / _{s,#}
et → o
ej → ai
i → o / _m
{ŋ,j} → ∅ / i_
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
(N)p Nb sP çp çb pr br {p,b}j → (m)pʰ (m)p sp ʝb çp br pʰj pʰj
(N)t (N)d st sd KT çT tr dr çtr → (N)tʰ mt zd st kt çt(j) trh tr çtr
(P)ɡ sɡ çK Nɡ k sk rk (s)ɡj (ʔ)kj → (p)k sk çk mk kʰ zɡ Nɡ (s)kj (ʔ)kʰj
Nkj (s)ɡr Kç kr skr ɡr → mɡj (s)kr ɡçkr kʰr zɡr Nɡr
K → ʔ / _s
C[+ sibilant] → s / _w
N P K → m p k / _ç
l → ∅ / #ç_
ts (r)dz dzl dʒ NTS PTS Kts KTS sTS çTS → tsʰ (r)ts Ndz tsl ts ptç ktç kts sts {s,ç}ts
LTS → ldʒ
N → m / _{ŋ,ɲ}
*w → ʔ / something to do either with back vowels or prefixes
Rhymes:
uŋ → ak
om → {o,a}m
ew iw → i jo
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
NB: These changes are likely very incomplete. The source did not have much to say about this language.
Initials:
d → l
ts dʒ NTS → {s,tʃ.} tʃ. m
s → ʃ / _n
Rhymes:
n → ∅ / a_
im it ik is ij → em u e es e
uk → o
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
{p,b} Np pr {s,r}P çb Nb → p mp mbr sp ʃp p.s
Nt tr d KT çT → mt. tʂ t kt ʃt
kr rk {rK,Pɡ} ɡ Pɡ sɡ → k.r rk. pk k sk
ɡj → cç ? (might be → tsç?)
ʔkj → ktʃ.
ç → zɡ / _r
ɡ → ∅ / #_r
rs → sr
C[+ sibilant] → s / _#
lts rts NTS PTS STS → lɖʐ rts. {mdzr,mtʃ} nt. sts
ts dʒ → tʃ. tʃ
ŋ → ȵ
nj → ɲ / #(r)_
j → dz / #_
Rhymes:
u → o / _p
a → o / _r
es er → or ər
e → iɛ
i → a / _t
i → iɛ / _s
i → ɐ / _m
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
NB: These changes are likely very incomplete. The source did not have much to say about this language.
Initials:
kr → dz
z → k
C[+ sibilant]w → s
dʒ → tsh
Rhymes:
un → ial
an → a(i)
i → əi / _#
i → iə / _m
it → u
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
∅ → n / _pr
P → p / r_
çb → ʂp
Nb → p.
d(r) çT → t ʃt
k {sɡ,çK} Nɡ rK → k. sk mɡ nk
kj → tʃ.
z → ts / r_
C[+ sibilant]w → sj
(P)ç Nç çl → (b)ɕ np.j ʂl
ts dz NTS KTS sTS → tʃ ts {ts,m} ɡts sp
s → ʂ / _n
Nnj → mɲ
nj rnj → nj rɲ
∅ → dz / #_j
Finals:
ut u{k,n} ur → ud uo uɛ
uj → ue
om → {on,am}
a(t) → ɛ / _#
ap → ɛk
an → ɿɛ
ew e ej → ə i ei
i → e / _m
i i{t,k} → {ə,iɛ} ə
iŋ → ʅ
j → ∅ / i_
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
P → p / s_
P t → pdz tʃ / r_
Np Nb Nt Nɡ Nç → sts mp mtʰ mk ntsʰdz
p → b / _r
{d,KT} st → tʃ zdʒ
dr çdr → ʈ ʂʈdz
çK → ʂk
k rk kr kj Nkj ɡr → kʰdz nɡ kʰr tʃh dʒ nkʰr
ɡ → ∅ / _r
Pç → b.ç
çl → sɬ
C[+ sibilant]w ç → swdz sdz
NTS KTS lTS → mʈʂ {kts,ʈʂʰ} bɖʐ
ts dz rdz dʒ → {ʈʂ,ʒ} tsj rtsʰ ʈʂ
∅ → j / rN_
ç → ʂ / _m
ŋ(w) → ȵ(wj)
Nnj → mɲ ?
j → s / #_
Rhymes:
uk uŋ → {u,o} e
o → e / _s
s → ∅ / u_
a → e / _(p)
t → ŋ / a_
aw aj → au ai
e i → i a / _m
it ik → o ek
iw ij → iu ei
Pogostick Man, from Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Initials and Prefixes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 4(2):44 – 68; and Nagano, Yashuiki (1979), “A Historical Study of rGyarong Rhymes”. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 5(1):37 – 47
Initials:
pr b → br p
d KT → l kt
k kr kj ɡ → k. k.r ts. ɡ
ɡ ç → ∅ zɡ / _r
Pç çl → ʃ ʃn
ts dzl NTS → {tʃ.,j} tsl m
s → ʃ / _n
ŋ → j
Nnj çnj → mn ʃn
Rhymes:
uk → o
o → ə / _n
t → ∅ / a_
an ap → ai ie
aj → ui
ew → i
it ik → o i
is → eu
im iŋ → wa ie
ij → e
Pogostick Man, from Jacques, Guillaume (2004), “Phonologie et Morphologie du Japhug (rGyalrong)”. Université Paris-Diderot – Paris VII <tel-00138568>. <https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/138568/filename/these-japhug.pdf>
NB: This source is in French and looks to at least sometimes use a transcription that isn’t IPA.
{d,ɡ,s,l,r} → {h,r} / #_
ʃ → x / #_ (some dialects, never when following preinitials)
k(ʰ){r,j} ɡ{r,j} → tɕ(ʰ) dʑ
pʰ b → h w
i → ə / _#
sr → ʂ / #_
s → either i or a diphthong ending in i? / _#
d → l / _# (some dialects)
t → l / _# (further development in bLa-brang)
Based upon Julian and Chafe, Proto-Siouan-Iroquoian, if it existed, appears to have had the following phonetic inventory:
| Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | |||||
| Plosive | p pʰ | t tʰ | k kʰ | ʔ | |||
| Fricative | θ | s | ʃ | x | h | ||
| Liquid | r | j | w |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i ı̃ | u ũ | |
| Mid | e ẽ | o õ | |
| Low | a ã |
For this following section, the sound transcribed here as 〈r〉 may in actuality represent something akin to /ɹ/.
Siouan-Iroquoian, and for that matter the inclusion of Yuchian and Caddoan within the former and the latter, respectively, is far from universally accepted; their inclusion here is in large part due to the available sources giving correspondences for each. It was unknown whether Proto-Caddoan was the same as the Proto-Iroquois-Caddoan indicated in Cafe’s paper, so the Caddoan changes have been presented after the main Iroquoian changes.
Per KneeQuickie, Whimemsz wishes to “[n]ote that Siouan-Iroquoian is a proposed, rather than firmly-demonstrated, language grouping”.
(From Chafe, Wallace L. (1964), “Another Look at Siouan and Iroquoian”. American Anthropologist New Series, 66:852 – 862; Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg; and from cedh aumdmanh’s Iroquoian changes)
Pogostick Man, from Chafe, Wallace L. (1964), “Another Look at Siouan and Iroquoian”. American Anthropologist New Series, 66:852 – 862; and from cedh aumdmanh’s Iroquoian changes
w → ∅ / _{o,õ,ı̃}
m → w / _ã
t → ts / _{i,ı̃}
tʰ → ts / _i
tʰ → n / else
ã → ẽ
e → i / r_ʔ
r → ts / _i
ı̃ → i
k → ∅ / t_
kʰ → r
m → n
p → ∅ / C_ ! s_
p → kʷ / else
pʰ → ʍ (this is a bit of a guess; the paper proper has 〈hw〉 here)
ʃ θ → s t
The paper is unclear about what happened to /u/.
x → ∅ / _k
x → h / _C ! C_C
x → k
ʔ → ∅ / C_
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
k kʷ → ts k / _i
w → ∅ / h_i
w → ∅ / t(h)_
{wV,jV} → Vː[+low falling tone]
V → ∅ / C_hC
Vʔ → Vː[+low falling tone] / _C
{Vh,Vʔ} → Vː / _#
a(ː)wẽ(ː) → a(ː)ma(ː)
V[+nas] → aː[+high rising tone]
∅ → Vː[+high rising tone] / C_# (“usually one of [/aː iː ʌ̃ː/ with this tone], the conditions are unclear”)
iji → iː
tsn → hst
n → h / _st
{n,r} → ∅ / _j
t → ∅ / _{k,n}
t → ∅ / n_
j → ∅ / ts_
∅ → i / C_R
s → ∅ / #h_V
ts → s / h_
ks → ts / _V
nh → hn
ẽ(ː) õ(ː) → o(ː) ʌ̃(ː)
r → l
“Some additional changes seem to have taken place in one or more Cherokee dialects, affecting consonant clusters whose reconstructed identity is in most cases uncertain. Example correspondences include /hs ~ lh ~ thl/ (probably < */hsɹ/) or /ts ~ tl ~ thl/ (maybe < */tsɹ/?)”
“[A] synchronic allophonic rule:”
t ts k kʷ → d dz ɡ ɡʷ / _V
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
o(ː) u(ː) → a(ː) o(ː)
iji(ː) → hi(ː) / {k,s}_ “(possibly after all non-glottal obstruents)”
i → e / ! _hCC (“short only”)
∅ → i(ː) / #_(C)(C)CVC(C)(C)#
V → ”V / “in antepenultimate syllables, if the vowel of the penultimate syllable was short */a/ followed by a single non-glottal consonant”
V → ”V / “in penultimate syllables not preceded by an accented antepenult”
Vː → V[-long] / ! in U#
”V → ”Vː / “in open penultimate syllables followed by a non-glottal consonant”
h → ∅ / #_s
n → ∅ / _ti
t → ∅ / n_V
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
∅ → a / w_j
”V(C)(C)CaCV → V(C)”(C)CaCV / _#
h → ∅ / _nh
ʔ → ∅ / _nk(ʷ)
n → t / _k(ʷ)
ts → hs / V_ ! _{h,i,j,r}
ts → s / ! _{h,i,j,r}
ns → ts / _k(ʷ)
V → Vː / _C[-glottal] “in even-numbered syllables when accented or immediately before the accent”
“[A]ccented short vowels in odd-numbered penults lose their accent”
“[W]ords with no accent acquire a new accent on the vowel of the last non-final even syllable of the word”
Vʔ → ʔV / “in odd-numbered unaccented non-final syllables;” ! {ʔ,h}_
j → ∅ / ts_
h → ∅ / s_w
r → n / _(h)j
r → w / {o(ː),õ(ː)}_{a(ː),e(ː),ẽ(ː),i(ː)}
r → j / {e(ː),ẽ(ː),i(ː)}_{a(ː),o(ː),õ(ː)}
r → ∅ / VH_
r → ∅ / _H
r → ∅ / w_
r → ∅ / V_V
V1”V2 ”V1ːV2 → ”V1V2 ”V1[-long]V2
e(ː) → ẽ / _ẽ(ː)
o(ː) → õ / _õ(ː)
”V0V0 → V0ː[-accent]
R → ∅ / ʔ_#
C → ∅ / {s,k}_#
Ch → ∅ / _s#
h → ∅ / Vː_#
t → h / _t
ths → tsh
∅ → h / {t,k}_n
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
s → f / h_r
ts → s / _(h)r
“Allophonic changes:”
s → ʃ / _{r,j}
t k kʷ → d ɡ ɡʷ / _{V,R}
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
ts → t / _(h)r
t → k / _j
V → V[-voiced] / _h “(odd syllables only)”
tʔ tsʔ kʔ kʷʔ → tʼ tsʼ kʼ kʷʼ
“Allophonic changes:”
s → ʃ / _{r,j}
t k kʷ → d ɡ ɡʷ / _{V,R} ! _V[-voiced]
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
s → ʃ / ! _{n,t,k(ʷ),w} “or when part of the affricate /ts/”
ts → ʃ / _r
ts → s / ! _{i,j}
n → ∅ / t(h)_
n → ∅ / _s
n → ∅ / _i “(in pronominal prefixes only)”
k → i / #_n
k → ∅ / _n
n hn sC → t th Ch / s_
k → h / _{t,ts,s,ʃ}
k → x / {#,R,ʔ,V}_{V,ʔ,R,#}
kʷ → xʷ / V_V
t → k / _(h)w
t → ∅ / _k(ʷ)
j → ∅ / ts_
j → ∅ / #_V
j → ∅ / V_{V,#}
{r,w} → ∅ / _j
w → ∅ / #_
w → ∅ / _{r,#}
h → ∅ / #_w
∅ → k / s_(h)w
∅ → a / CC_ʔ
“Some known changes in dialects other than pre-Wyandot:”
r → h / ʃ_
t → k / _r
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
Vː → ”V / in U#; “this change may have been present in Huron already”
t → k / _j
xʷ → w
{ʔ,h} → ∅ / _nh
n → t / _h
h → ∅ / {t,ts,s,k}_
Vh → Vː / _R
∅ → w / {o(ː),õ(ː)}_V
∅ → j / {e(ː),ẽ(ː),i(ː)}_V
x → ∅ / _{i,j}
x → e / #_r
w j → m ɲ / between two vowels of unlike nasality
j → ʒ / {#,ʔ,V}_V
x → j / _V
x → ∅
k → ∅ / _#
ẽ(ː) õ(ː) o(ː) → ɛ̃(ː) ɔ̃(ː) u(ː)
n → ⁿd / _{V[-nas],r}
n → ŋ / _{j,w}
ɛ̃(ː) → ã(ː) / w_
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
s → ʃ / ! n_ “or when part of the unit affricate /ts/”
ts → hs / V_V ! _i
ts → s / ! _{h,i,j}
ns → ts / _k(ʷ)
n → ∅ / _s
”V(ː)(C)(C)Vː → V[-long](C)”(C)CV[-long] / _#
ara → aː / “unaccented syllables only”
jh → hj
n → t / _k(ʷ)
”V(C)(C)CaCV → V(C)”(C)CaCV / _#
ʃ → s
n → ∅ / h_r
h → ∅ / w_j
Vw → Vː / _{r,j}
”V → ”Vː / _C(R)V
hs → sh / C_
hts → tsh / C_V
V → Vː / _”C[-glottal](R)V{ː,H} in “even numbered syllables only”
V → Vː / _KRV “in the second syllable of a word”
V → V[+high tone] / _$”V
a(ː) o(ː) õ(ː) → æ(ː) e(ː) ẽ(ː) / r_
Vr → Vː / _C
rV → Vː / C_
r → j / {e(ː),ẽ(ː),i(ː)}_V
r → w / {o(ː),õ(ː)}_V
r → ∅
h → ∅ / _sn
h → ∅ / _{k,t,ts,s}#
k → h / _k
õ(ː) → ũ(ː)
“Allophonic changes:”
ts → tʃ / _{(h)i,(h)j}
s → ʃ / _{hi,hj}
t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
ẽ(ː) õ(ː) → ʌ̃(ː) ũ(ː)
ts → hs / V_{t,k(ʷ)}
ts → s / ! _{h,i,j}
ns → ts / _{t,k(ʷ)}
n → ∅ / _s
”V → ”Vː[+falling tone] / _{ʔ,hR}
ʔ → ∅ / ”Vː[+falling tone]_C
h → ∅ / ”Vː[+falling tone]_R
h → ∅ / _#
h → ∅ / #_w
Vː → V / _(C)(C)(C)#
CʔV0 → CV0ʔV0
∅ → e / w_r (and “probably. . .in other environments”)
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
V0 → ∅ / ”VC(C)(C)V0ʔ_C(C)(C)#
∅ → e / {tsh,s,n}_r
w → ∅ / _jh
h → ∅ / w_j
jh → hj
∅ → e / w_j
∅ → e / n_k(ʷ)
∅ → e / {t,k}_{r,n}
∅ → e / {#,V}s_n
∅ → e / t_w
∅ → e / {#,V}s_w
“Dialectal changes include:”
— r → l
— t → k / _j
— k → t / _j
— wə̃ → ũ / {h,s}_
— j → ∅ / ts_
— t → tʃ / _(h)j
— wh → f
“Allophonic changes:”
— ts → tʃ / _{(h)i,(h)j}
— t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
— s → ʃ / _(h)j
— s → z / {#,V}_{V,R} ! R = j
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
”Vː[-falling tone]CV → Vː”CV
”V → ”Vː / _ʔ
ʔ → ∅ / ”Vː_
∅ → i / {V,t}n_k(ʷ)V
ths → tsh
hs → sh / _{n,w}
h → ∅ / _Ch
h → ∅ / k_{s,ts}
h → ∅ / _{sk,st}
h → ∅ / {st,tst}_
h → ∅ / ts_r ! “in pre-pausal forms, see also below”
{h,ʔ} → ∅ / _R “in post-tonic syllables”
ʔ → h / _C “in post-tonic syllables”
r → l
”Vː[+falling tone] → ”V[-long -falling tone]
Vː → V[-long] _”C(C)(C)V (“this change happens only in the Ontario dialect”)
“In addition, a number of sound changes have applied to words only in the pre-pausal position. Most of these changes are characterized by the devoicing of one or more segments at the end of a word”
— ∅ → e / C_{n,l}V(H)#
— ∅ → o / C_wV(H)#
— ∅ → i / C_jV(H)#
— Vː[+falling tone]C(C)V(H) → V̊ː[+falling tone]C̊(C̊)V̊(H̊) / _#
— CVː[+falling tone] → C̊V̊ː[+falling tone] / _#
— CVʔ → C̊V̊ʔ̊ / _#
— V[-long] → V̊ / R_#
— OV[-long] → O̊V̊ / _#
— jV → ∅ / Ci_(H)#
— ʔ → h / _C#
— R → R̊ / _#
“Allophonic changes:”
ts → tʃ / _{(h)i,(h)j}
t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
s → ʃ / _(h)j
s → z / {#,V}_{V,R}
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
ts → s / ! _{i,j}
n → ∅ / _s
j → ∅ / _ts
V → Vː / _{t,k(ʷ),s,n,r,j,w} “in even penultimate syllables”
“The inherited accent system is replaced by a new one, by which...
— “the accent falls on the last nonfinal even short syllable of a word if this vowel is followed directly
—— “by a single glottal consonant,
—— “by /sn/ or /sw/,
—— “by any two-consonant cluster that does not end in a resonant,
—— “or by any three consonant cluster;
— “failing that, the accent falls on the last non-final even short syllable that is followed by a non-final syllable such as that just described;
— “failing that, a word has no accent.”
a → æ / _ra(ː)
a → e / _ro(ː)
ã → ẽ / _rõː
a(ː) → æ(ː) / r_
h → ∅ / _{tk,nh,sC,C#}
h → ∅ / #_w
h → ∅ / w_j
hw → ∅ / õ_
w → ∅ / _{r,j}
r → n / _(h)j
r → ∅ / Vh_
Vh → Vː / _{n,w,j}
h → ∅ / V_V
r → j / C[-glottal](h)_{o(ː),õ(ː)
r → h / s_
r → j / i(ː)_V
r → w / {o(ː),õ(ː)}_V
r → ∅
o → oː / _{aː,æː}
Vː → V / V_
V1”V2 → ”V1V2
a(ː) → ẽ(ː) / adjacent to a nasal vowel
ẽ(ː) → e(ː) / _{e(ː),o(ː)
ʔ → ∅ / _nk(ʷ)
n → t / _k(ʷ)
n → t / ʔ_#
R → ∅ / _h
C → ∅ / s_#
C[-glottal] → ∅ / _s#
k → ∅ / _hts
t → h / _{n,t}
t → ∅ / k_#
{ths,tts} → tsh
a(ː) æ(ː) → õ(ː) ẽ(ː) / n_
a(ː) → õ(ː) / V[+nas]H_
a(ː) → õ(ː) / V[+nas]({ʔ,s})w_
ẽ(ː) õ(ː) → ɛ̃(ː) ɔ̃(ː)
∅ → h / k_n
“Allophonic changes:”
— t k(ʷ) → d ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
— s → ʃ / _j
— a e o → ə ɪ ʊ / C_{C,i[-long]}
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
ts → tʃ / _{h,i,j}
ths → tʃ
j → ∅ / tʃ_
t → ˀt
”V → ”Vː / _n in “penultimate syllables only”
n → t / ! _{h,kʷ,V[+nas]}
”V → ”Vː / _{k(ʷ),(ˀ)t}{s,R,H} (“penultimate syllables only”)
”V → ”Vː / _RR
{ẽ(ː),õ(ː)} → ə̃(ː)
ts → θ
ˀt → tʔ / _ˀt
ˀt → ∅ / _t
ˀt → ʔ / _r
ˀt → ʔn / V_{V,w,j}
ˀt → n / {#,C}_{V,w,j}
ˀt → t
h → ∅ / _nh
h → ∅ / #_w
h → ∅ / k_{s,ts,tʃ}
h → ∅ / Vː_#
w → ∅ / _jh
n → t / _kʷ
∅ → t / hs_r
∅ → j / k_e(ː)
r becomes a trill
e(ː) → ɛ(ː)
ə̃(ː) → ɨ̃(ː) / ! “when both short and stressed”
a(ː) o(ː) → ɔ(ː) u(ː) / ! “when both short and unstressed”
t k(ʷ) → d ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
n r w j → n̥ r̥ w̥ j̊ / _{#,O}
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
θ → s
w → ∅ / _j
jʔ → ʔj
r̥ w̥ j̊ → s f ʃ
cedh audmanh, from Julian, Charles (2010), “A History of the Iroquoian Languages”, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
r → ∅ / st_
ə̃(ː) a(ː) o(ː) → ɨ̃(ː) ɔ(ː) u(ː) (“in all positions”)
Pogostick Man, from Chafe, Wallace L. (1964), “Another Look at Siouan and Iroquoian”. American Anthropologist New Series, 66:852 – 862; and from cedh aumdmanh’s Iroquoian changes
ẽ õ → ı̃ ũ
{t,h} → ∅ / s_
h → ∅ / V_C
s → ∅ / h_
θ → r
ʔ → ∅ / V_
x → ç / _{i,u}
Also, apparently /tʲ/ got picked up and added to the phonology somewhere along the line, but the circumstances are unclear
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text. Changes appended with an asterisk are putative; there was a seeming lack of material for this language, so I’ve attempted to do some tracking work from the examples given in the text.
ç x → x ʃ
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
p → b / V_V (*)
tʲ → ʃ / in ”U
tʲ → ʒ / else
t → ∅ / _k, when medial
”V[+nas] → Vn (*)
∅ → ʔ / C_# (only sometimes?) (*)
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
ç x → x {ʃ,ʒ}
p → {p,b,m,w}
tʲ → ʃ / in ”U
tʲ → ʒ / else
s → z / in U[-stress]
s → z / V_V
r → d / s_
tʲr → {st,ʃt}
r → d / x_
mn → mV0nV0 / #_
km → kV0mV0
w → p / _t
t → ∅ / _k, when medial
hk →tʃ
k → ∅ / _x”V
x → ʔ / ”Vk_
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels.
{pr,mt} → md
kr → hd / #_
kr → ɡj / medial
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels.
{pr,mt} kr → bl ɡl
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels.
r → d / k_
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/.
s → ʃ
t → ∅ / _s
ç → x
w → m
Lʲ → n / _V[+nas]
L → r / _V[-nas]
ã → a / in ”U (sporadic)
“Phonemic vowel length was gained somehow.”
tʲ → s / _ʔV
CʔV0 → CV0ʔV0
tʲr → sV0rV0
r → ∅ / k_
mn → mV0nV0 / #_
mn → mV0nV0 / {C,V}_{C,V}
sn → {ʃV0nV0,sV0rV0}
km → kV0pV0
t → ∅ / _k, when medial
sk → ʃ / _”V
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
ç x → x {ʃ,ʒ}
p → {p,b,m,w}
w → ∅ / _t
t → tʃ / _”E
t → dʒ / _E[-stress]
tʲ → ʃ / in ”U
tʲ s → ʒ z / in U[-stress]
k → ɡ / V[+nas]_ ! _#
k → ɡ / _ʔ
kr → kV0rV0
m → ∅ / _n ! _n#
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
p → w / V_V
ɡ → ŋ
k → ɡ / ”V_
s z → θ ð (sporadic)
L → l
Lʲ → n / _V[+nas]
Lʲ → r / _V[-nas]
t → tʃ / _ʔ
pr → bl
sr → {θl,ʃl}
tʲr → ʃV0rV0
kr → ɡl
r → l / x_
k → h / _m
k → ∅ / #t_
tk → ɡ / when medial
x → ∅ / _k
x → ∅ / k_”V
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
V → ∅ / _#
p → b / V_V
t → {tʃ,dʒ}
Wolff says that “Winnebago preserved the intermediate stages of *k reflexes”
L → r
Lʲ → n / _V[+nas]
Lʲ → r / _V[-nas]
tʲ → x / _ʔ
pr {sr,xr} sn km → pV0rV0 ʃV0rV0 sV0nV0 kV0wV0
mt → r
tk → {tʃk,tʃɡ} / #_
t → ∅ / _k, when medial
xk → ɡ
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/.
s ç {tʲ,x} → ts x ʃ
m → w (Crow seems to have gained a phonemic /m/ after this, however)
L(ʲ) → r
ã ı̃ ũ → a i u
Phonemic vowel length was gained somehow.
wt → wV0tV0
t → ∅ / _k, when medial
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels.
t → ʃ / _E
t → s / _V
k → ts / _i
n → r / ! at word boundaries
t → ʃ / _ʔ
ʔ → ∅ / _C
sk → tsk / _”V
x → ∅ / k_”V
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels.
n → r
ʔ → ∅ / C_
kr → kV0rV0 / #_
r → ∅ / {C,V}k_{C,V}
mn → w / {C,V}_{C,V}
sn → tsV0rV0
km → hp
sk → tsuk / _”u
sk kx → tsk hk / _”V
sk → hts / ”V_
∅ → V / x_k
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
w → ∅ / _t
t tʲ s → d ʒ z / in U[-stress]
tʲ → ʃ / in ”U
k → ɡ / ”V_
s → z / V_V
L Lʲ → {ð,j} ʒ / _”V
L → d / ”V_
w → β (sporadic, allophonic)
u → i / in ”U (sporadic)
k → ∅ #t_ (in morphemes)
tk → ɡ / when medial
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text. Changes appended with an asterisk are putative; there was a seeming lack of material for this language, so I’ve attempted to do some tracking work from the examples given in the text.
V[+nas] → V[-nas]n
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
w → b / #_
r L(ʲ) → d j / #_ (*)
L → bl / #_e (*)
V → V[+nas] / N_
N → S / V_V
ũ → aN / stressed
t → ts / _ʔ
tʲr kr → ʃt l
mn → bl / {C,V}_{C,V}
mt → d
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/.
p → b / V_V
n → θ / _{ã,ẽ,õ}
w → m / #_
L → θ / _”V
d → n / ”V_
Lʲ → {θ,n} / _V[+nas -stress]
ũ → ã / stressed
k → ∅ / _ʔ
pr sr tʲr kr → bθ sn ʃn ɡθ
mn → mV0nV0 / #_
mn → bθ / {C,V}_{C,V}
mt → n
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
t → ts / _E
s → θ
{ç,x} → z (sporadic)
n → ð / _{ã,ẽ,õ}
w → b / #_
Lʲ → ð / _V[+nas -stress]
ʔ → ∅ / p_
t → ts / _ʔ
pr sr tʲr kr → bð sts ʃd ɡð
r → ð / x_
m → ∅ / #_n
mn → bð / {C,V}_{C,V}
sn mt → hn d
ʃ → s / ”V_k
xk → (ʃ)k / _”V
xk → ɡ / ”V_
x → ʔ / k_”V
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text. Changes appended with an asterisk are putative; there was a seeming lack of material for this language, so I’ve attempted to do some tracking work from the examples given in the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
tʲ → ʃ
L → d / #_
x → ʒ (*)
Lʲ → j / #_õ (*)
Lʲ → t / #_ã (*)
ã → õ (*)
ũ → ã / stressed (*)
m → ∅ / #_n (in morphemes) (*)
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
tʲ Lʲ → tʃ j
m → ∅ / {C,V}_n{C,V}
{w,m} → ∅ / _t
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
p → w / V_V, apparently as a result of some dissimilation, as this appears to be an allophone of /p/ here, IIUC
w → ∅ / #_ (sporadic)
m → w / #_
L → d
ã → an (sporadic)
ʔ → ∅ / C_
r → {d,n}
m → ∅ / #_n
k → ∅ / #t_
k → ∅ / ”Vs_
k → ∅ / _x”V
kx → xk / ”V_
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
s {ç,x} → f s
w → ∅ / #_ (sporadic)
m → w / #_
L j → t tʃ
ã → {an,õ}
ʔ → ∅ / C_
sr kr → ft kV0lV0
m → ∅ / #_n
∅ → V / k_m
k → ∅ / #t_
sk → f / ”V_
x → s / _k
kx → sk / ”V_
kx → s
Pogostick Man, from Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan I”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(2):61 – 66; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan II” International Journal of American Linguistics 16(3):113 – 121; Wolff, Hans (1950), “Comparative Siouan III”. International Journal of American Linguistics 16(4):168 – 178; and cedh audmanh’s changes above, which assisted me in deciphering the vintage phonetic transcription scheme
NB: Does not include developments in unstressed non-nasal vowels. L was apparently either /ɹ/ or /l/; Lʲ (Lʸ in the text) was apparently /j/, or maybe /ʎ/. Also, the changes of /p/ before a consonant are unclear, as described within the text. Changes appended with an asterisk are putative; there was a seeming lack of material for this language, so I’ve attempted to do some tracking work from the examples given in the text.
p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
L → l
k → ᵑk / _ʔ
ʔ → ∅ / C_
mn → mV0nV0 / #_ (in morphemes)
sn → sV0nV0
∅ → V / k_m
s → ʃ / ”V_k
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
w → ∅ / m_
{f,v} {m,b} → pʰ b
pl b{l,r} → v pj
{l,r} → ∅ / {d,ɗ}_
d ɗ → t d
ŋ̊ → h
N[- voice] l̥ → N[+ voice] l
tʰ → ∅ / _r
ɣ → kʰ
ɡl → k(w)
x → ∅ / _r
r → l / K_
k → kʰ / _r
xʷ Kʷ → {kʰ,x} K(ʷ)
V → Vː / _%
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
ɲ̊ → j
N[- voice] → N[+ voice]
w → ∅ / m_
pr b{l,r} vr → v bj d
{l,r} → ∅ / {n,ɗ}_
d ɗ → t d
t → {p,t} / _r
l → ∅ / tʰ_
d → t / _{l,r}
{ɡ,x} → kʰ
k → t / _l
V → Vː / _%
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
ɓ ɗ → b d / ! _{l,r}
{l,r} → ∅ / n,ɗ_
f → pʰ
{m,w} → v
l → ∅ / p_{ɯ,e,i}
l → j / p_
b{l,r} → pj
v → b / _r
l → ∅ / t_
tr → tʰ(r)_
d → ∅ / _{l,r}
N[- voice] → N[+ voice]
ɡ x → k kʰ
kl kr → {kj,tʃ} kʰj
{l,r} → ∅ / ŋ_
xr → kʰ{l,r}
xʷ ɣʷ → kʷʰ {v,w}
V → Vː / _%
iə → ı̆ / _C%
ɨ̯a → aː
ɛi ei → ai iː
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
v → f
pr → pʰ / _{ɯ,e,i}
pr → pʰj
{r,s,z} tʃʰ dʒ → ɬ ʃ tʃ
ɲ → j
ɡl → kj
ɨ → ∅ / _u
ɨə → ɨ̆ / _C%
ɨ̆ i̯o → u ə
uə → ŭ
u̯ɨ u̯o → {ɨ,ə} u
uo ɨ̯u → u(ː) u / _C%
ɨ̯u → uː
o {u̯ɔ,ɨɔ,ɔ} → u oː
e → i / _C%
i̯e → i
{(i)ɛ,i̯ɛ} → eː
uɔ ɨ̯ɔ → oː ɨ
{ɨo̯,ɨa̯,ɨe̯} ie̯ → ɨː iː
{uɨ̯,ua̯,ue̯} → uː
ai → aːi
V → Vː / _V
u̯əi uəi uai i̯əu iau → oːi uːi uːiau oːu
a → aː / _u,i
əi → ai
ɨ̯ai → aːi
ɔ ɨ → oː ɨː / _i
u̯əi → oːi
{o,ə} → a / _ɨ
{ɛɨ,eɨ} → aɨ
eu → uː
o → a / _u
i̯əu → au
ɛ i → eː iː / _u
{uəi,uai} iau → uːi eːu
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
v → f
pr → pʰ / _{ɯ,e,i}
pr → pʰj
tʃ tʃʰ dʒ → ʃ tsʰ {ʃ,tʃ}
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
v → f
pr → tʰ
{s,z} → {x,tʰ}
tʃ dʒ → {x,t} tʃ
(ʔ)j → ʒ
ɡ → ∅ / _l
ɣ → kʰ
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
pr → tʰ
z → {r,s}
dʒ → tʃ
(ʔ)j → ʒ
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
v → f
pr → tʰ
r → r̥
{s,z} → t
dʒ → tʃ
ɣ → w / _V[+ round]
ɣ → j
i iː u → ə ei oʊ̯
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
{kʰ,ɡ}{l,r} → tʃ
k{l,r} → {kj,tʃ}
l → ∅ / p(ʰ),b_E
l → j / p(ʰ),b_V
{l,r} → ∅ / ɗ_
{pʰ,b} ɓ {tʰ,d} ɗ {kʰ,ɡ} {kʷʰ,ɡ} → p b t d k kʷ
m̥ n̥ → m n
mw f → f {f,v,w,h}
t{l,r} → r̥
n → ∅ / _r
z → s
{w,m} → v
{tʃ(ʰ),dʒ} → ʃ
xr x {x,ɣ}ʷ → r̥ h {w,v,h}
V → Vː / _%
iə → ı̆ / _C%
ɨ̆ → a / _K
uo → ɔː
{ɨ̯u,i̯ɛ} → ɨə̯~ɨa̯ / _%
u̯o i̯o → u o
ɨ̯a → ɨa̯~ɨə̯
{u̯ɔ,u̯a} → ua~uə
uo → uu → u / _%
ɨ̯ɔ → ɨa~ɨə
uɨ̯ ua̯ → ɨə uɔ̯ → ɨː ɔː
ɛi ei → ai əi
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
k → tʃ / _E
kl → ð
{r,r̥} → ð
v → w (possibly a conservation with other languages changing *w to v?)
ŋ → ɡ
TŠ → TS
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
k → tʃ / _E
{r,r̥} → l
ɗ → n
s → ɬ
ɨ → ∅ / _u
ɨ̆ə → ɨ̆ / _C%
ɨ̆ → a / _K
ɨ̆ → ə
uə → ŭ
ɔː → oː
ɨə̯~ɨa̯ → ɨː / _%
ɨə̯~ɨa̯ → ɨ / _C%
i̯o → o
e → o / _{m,p}%
e → ɛ / _C%
ɛ iɛ → eː ı̆
i̯e → i
o → ɔ
Cʷə → Cɔ
ə → {a,ɒ,ɑ,ʌ} ?
u̯ɨ → ɔ / m_
u̯ɨ → ɨ
ɨa̯~ɨə̯ → iː / j_
ɨa̯~ɨə̯ → ɨː
ua~uə → uː
ɔ → oː
ua~u@̯ → uː
ɨɔ → ɨ / _C%
ɨ̯a~ɨə → ɨː
ue̯ → u / _C%
ue̯ → uː
ɨo̯ ɨa̯ ie̯ ɨe̯ → uː aː eː iː
ɨ a → ɨː aː / _i
{əi,ɛi,ei} → ai
ɨ̯ai → ɨːi
u̯əi ɔi → (w)iː oːi
ə → a / _{u,ɨ}
{ɛi,ei} → ɨː
{ou,oɨ} → oː
ɛ e i → eː a iː / _u
i̯əu → uː
uəi uai iau → iː oːi eːu
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
r̥ → r
s → θ
i → {i,oi} / _%
u → aʊ̯
əi → ai
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
p → p(ʰ)
v → f
m → w / ! _w
w → ∅ / m_
l → ∅ / {p,k(ʰ),ŋ}_
pr → t
v → b / _r
{l,r} → ∅ / t,ɗ_
tʰl tʰr → tʰ r̥
d → ∅ / _{l,r}
z r → s r̥
xr → h
x → kʰ
ɡʷ → kʷʰ
V → Vː / _%
ɨə → ɨː
iə → ı̆ / _C% (not in all languages)
ɨ̯a → aː
ɛi ei → ai iː
o → ɔː / _i
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
ɓ ɗ → b d
bl br → p pʰ
r̥ → h
dʒ → s
ɡ{l,r} → kʰ
ɡ ɣ → kʰ ɡ
xʷ ɣʷ → kʷ ɡʷ
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
ɓ ɗ → b d
bl br → p pʰ
r̥ → r̥ / “literary”
r̥ → h
dʒ → s
ɲ → j
ʔ → ∅ / _j
ɡl ɡr → k kʰ
{kʰ,ɣ} ɡ → x k
kʷʰ ɣʷ → xʷ x(ʷ)
o → u / _N
e → i / _N%
{uɨ̯,ua̯,ue̯} {ɨa̯,ɨe̯} ie̯ → o ə e
əi → ai
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
ɓ ɗ → b l
bl br → p pʰ
r̥ → h
ts → sʲ
dʒ → s
ɡl ɡr → k kʰ
ɡ ɣ → k kʰ
xʷ → kʷ
{uɨ̯,ua̯,ue̯} {ɨa̯,ɨe̯} ie̯ → o ə e
əi → ai
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
b → pʰ / _{l,r}
ɓ ɗ → m d
r̥ → h
ŋ ɡ ɣ → {h,ʃ} kʰ ɡ
xʷ ɣʷ → kʷ ɡʷ
u{o,ə} ɨu → uː ɨː
{u̯o,u̯ɨ} u̯ɔ → o ɔː
u̯a → aː
ɨ̯u i̯o → uː u
e → o / _{m,p}%
i̯e → e
{(i)ɛ,i̯ɛ} → ɛː
{ɨɔ,ɨ̯ɔ} → ɔː
a → aː / _i
ɨ̯ai → aːi
{u̯əi,ɔi} → ɔːi
əɨ → ai
{ɛɨ,eɨ} → ai
oɨ → ai
{o,ə} ɛ → a ɛː / _u
eu → uː
ɨ̯əu au → au aːu
ɨ → ə / _i
uəi → uai
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
ɓ ɗ → b l
bl br → p pʰ
r̥ → h
ɡ ɡl → k tʃ
xʷ ɣʷ → kʷ ɡʷ
Pogostick Man, from Li, Fang Kuei (1977). “A Handbook of Comparative Tai”. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (15), i – 389
ɓ ɗ → b d
bl br → p pʰ
r̥ → h
{kʰ,ɣ} ɡ ɡ{l,r} → x k tʃ
kʷʰ ɣʷ → xʷ x(ʷ)
o → u / _N
e → i / _N%
{uɨ̯,ua̯,ue̯} {ɨa̯,ɨe̯} ie̯ → o ə e
əi → ai
Proto-Tanoan is reconstructed as having had the following consonantal phonology, at least for phones in initial position:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ||
| Stop | p pʰ pʼ b | t ts tʰ tsʰ tʼ tsʼ d dz | k kʷ kʰ kʷʰ kʼ kʷʼ ɡ ɡʷ | ʔ |
| Fricative | s | h | ||
| Glide | w | |||
Only initials are reconstructed here. Vowels are believed to have had nasality and possibly length, though no correspondences are given here for sure. The affricates, as per Hale (1967), appear to have patterned as stops.
(From Hale, Kenneth (1967), “Toward a Reconstruction of Kiowa-Tanoan Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 33.2:112 – 120; and Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Tanoan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanoan_languages&oldid=496916321>)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Tanoan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanoan_languages&oldid=496916321>, citing Hale, Kenneth (1967), “Toward a Reconstruction of Kiowa-Tanoan Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 33.2:112 – 120
h → ∅
p b → ɸ ɱ
ts dz → s z
{tʰ,tsʰ} → ʃ
s → c
tsʼ → tʼ
d → n / _V[+nas]
k(ʷ)ʰ kʷ(ʼ) ɡ ɡʷ → h ɡ k kʷ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Tanoan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanoan_languages&oldid=496916321>, citing Hale, Kenneth (1967), “Toward a Reconstruction of Kiowa-Tanoan Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 33.2:112 – 120
ʔ → ∅
ts tsʰ tsʼ dz → t tʰ tʼ d
w → j
kʷ kʷʰ kʷʼ ɡʷ → k kʰ kʼ ɡ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Tanoan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanoan_languages&oldid=496916321>, citing Hale, Kenneth (1967), “Toward a Reconstruction of Kiowa-Tanoan Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 33.2:112 – 120
b → m
s → ɬ
ts tsʰ tsʼ dz → tʃ s tʃʼ j
d → l / _V[-nas]
d → n / _V[+nas]
kʰ kʰʷ ɡ ɡʷ → x xʷ k w
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Tanoan languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanoan_languages&oldid=496916321>, citing Hale, Kenneth (1967), “Toward a Reconstruction of Kiowa-Tanoan Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics, 33.2:112 – 120
pʰ tʰ tsʰ → f θ s
b → m
dz → {j,dʒ}
kʰ kʷʰ ɡʷ → x xʷ w
The following inventory is from Brown, Beck, Kondrak, Watters, and Wichmann, with laryngeal modality on the vowels assumed to be distinctive (the authors consider it an option but do not explicitly propose it).
| Bilabial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | nʲ | |||
| Stop | p | t | tʲ | k kʲ | q | ʔ |
| Affricate | ts | |||||
| Lateral Affricate | tɬ | |||||
| Fricative | s | ʃ | x | h | ||
| Lateral Fricative | ɬ | |||||
| Resonant | w | l | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i iː ḭ ḭː | ɨ ɨː ɨ̰ ɨ̰ː | u uː ṵ ṵː |
| Mid | e eː ḛ ḛː | ə əː ə̰ ə̰ː | o oː o̰ o̰ː |
| Mid-Low | ɔ ɔː ɔ̰ ɔ̰ː | ||
| Low | a aː a̰ a̰ː |
(From Brown, Cecil H., David Beck, Grzegorz Kondrak, James K. Watters, and Søren Wichmann, “Linking proto-Totonacan and proto-Mixe-Zoquean”. <http://www.ualberta.ca/~dbeck/TzEILNXI.pdf>)
Pogostick Man, from Brown, Cecil H., David Beck, Grzegorz Kondrak, James K. Watters, and Søren Wichmann, “Linking proto-Totonacan and proto-Mixe-Zoquean”. <http://www.ualberta.ca/~dbeck/TzEILNXI.pdf>
l → j
q → ʔ
nʲ tʲ tʃ kʲ → n t s ts k
x {ɬ,tɬ} → h j
V[+ creaky voice] → V[- creaky voice]
ɨ ɔ → ə o
Pogostick Man, from Brown, Cecil H., David Beck, Grzegorz Kondrak, James K. Watters, and Søren Wichmann, “Linking proto-Totonacan and proto-Mixe-Zoquean”. <http://www.ualberta.ca/~dbeck/TzEILNXI.pdf>
ʔ → ∅
nʲ tʲ kʲ k → l tʃ k q
h → ∅ / ! #_
j → t
o o̰ → u ṵ
{ə,ɔ} {ə̰,ɔ̰} → a a̰
{e,ɨ} {ḛ ɨ̰} → i ḭ
Pawley (2012) reconstructs the following inventory for Proto-Trans New Guinea. The use of the terms “apical” and “laminal” is his, but the table has been restructured somewhat.
| Labial | Apical | Laminal | Velar | |
| Stop | p ᵐb | t ⁿd | c ᶮɟ | k ᵑɡ |
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |
| Fricative | s | |||
| Approximant | w | l | j |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
(From Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164)
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
t k ŋ → {l,t} {h,k} n / #_
p k ⁿd → β {h,k} nj / V_V
{p,t} → ∅ / _#
e u i → a {u,ɨ} {i,ɨ}
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
p → f / #_ (?)
t → s / #_i
k s → ∅ {t,s} / #_
ᵐb ᵑɡ → p k / V_V
p t nj → {t,r} {r,s,t} s / _#
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
t → j / #_i
ŋ ᵑɡ → ∅ ɡ / #_
nj → s / #_ (?)
t → {r,s} / V_i
ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ nj → {p,ᵐb} {ⁿd,z} k z / V_V
a → {a,o}
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
{p,ᵐb} ŋɡ → b ɡ / #_
ᵑɡ → ɡ
ⁿd ᵑɡ → d k
u a → {u,o,y} {a,o}
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
Nl → nd
N → N[+ same POA] / _S
ʔ{l,d} ʔɡ → t k
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
N → ŋk / _V
N → ʔ / _S[- voice]
ʔ → n / before modal suffixes
Nw Nm N{n,j} → ŋk mp nt
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
N → ʔ / _{V,S[- voice]}
ʔ → n / before modal suffixes
Nw Nm N{n,j} → ŋk mp nt
m n → mb nd / #_
C → ∅ / VN_V
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
r → ʔ / _O
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
ʔ → ∅ / _#
ʔv ʔm ʔɡ ʔr → t p k v
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
{N,r} → ʔ / _{#,C}
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
r → ʔ / _#
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
N → ʔ / _{#,C}
ʔv ʔm ʔɡ ʔr ʔh → p b k t {s,f}
V[+ low tone] → ∅ / C_hV[+ high tone]
V[+ low tone] → ∅ / C_CV[+ high tone] if both vowels are the same
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
C → ∅ / _#
{N,r} → ʔ / _C
ʔŋɡ ʔd → ŋk t
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
ʔv ʔm ʔɡ ʔr ʔh → p b k t {s,f}
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
N → [+ same POA] / _C
N{w,d,r} nj → ŋk nt (not sure if *nj is supposed to be *ɲɟ)
N → ∅ / _#
r → ʔ / _{N,#}
r → ∅ / _S[- voice]
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
N → n / _{v,k,s}
N → ∅ / _{p,t,#}
Nd → n
ʔ → ∅ / _{p,t}
ʔw ʔb ʔd ʔɡ → m p t k
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
N → ∅ / _N
N → [+ same POA] / _C
nw nr → mb nd
{D,Y} → ∅ / _n
YO[+ voice] YO[- voice] → Y t
DO[+ voice] DO[- voice] → nd nt
Pogostick Man, from Haiman, John (1987), “Proto-Gorokan Syllable Structure”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 16(1 – 2):1 – 22 (Pogostick Man is not sure if it’s supposed to be 1985; the Web site says “1987, for 1985”); Ford, Kevin (1993), “A Preliminary Comparison of Kamano-Yagaria”. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 24(2):191 – 202; and Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2014). “Gorokan”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: <http://www.ethnologue.com/17/subgroups/gorokan/>
N1N2 → N2ː ?
N → ʔ / _O
N → n / _V
N{w,r} Nj → ʔk ʔt
r → ʔ / _C
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
t → {t,∅} / _#
l → ɽ
Frequent insertion of “epenthetic vowels, often realized as very short [ɨ], but in some contexts as a copy of a neighboring full vowel. In some cases the epenthetic vowels appear to be, historically, reductions of full vowels”
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
k ᵐb ⁿd → {k,h} b {s,t} / #_
ᵐb ⁿd → {ᵐb,p} s / V_V
p k → t ʔ / _#
p → f
u a → {u,ɔ} {ɔ,a}
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
t k ᵐb → {s,t} {ɡ,∅} {b,p} / #_
t ᵐb ⁿd {k,ᵑɡ} nj → {r,t} p {d,t} ɡ r / V_V
s → {s,t} / #_ (?)
u i → {u,o} {i,e}
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
ᵐb ⁿd s → b {s,t} {t,s} / #_
t ᵐb nj s → r {b,p} ⁿd {s,d} / V_V
t → t / _# (?)
ŋ → {m,ŋ} / _#
ᵑɡ → ɡ
u o a e → {u,ɔ} {o,ɔ} {a,ɔ} {e,o}
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
{p,ᵐb} → f / #_
s → s / #_ (?)
ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ → b n k / V_V
Pogostick Man, from Pawley, Andrew (2012). “How Reconstructible is Proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, Progress, Prospects”. In Languages & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue I:89 – 164
n ŋ → m n / #_
ᵑɡ → {ᵑɡ,ŋ} / V_V
i → {i,e}
The following reconstructed phonology for Proto-Uralic is adapted from the Wikipedia:
| Bilabial | Dental | Alv. | Alv.-pal. | Palatal | Postalv. | Velar | (Unk.) | |
| Nasal | m | n nʲ | ŋ | |||||
| Plosive | p | t | k | |||||
| Fricative | ð ðʲ | s | ɕ | ʃ | ||||
| Trill | r | |||||||
| Approximant | w | l lʲ | ||||||
| Unknown | x |
| Front | Back | |
| Close | i y | ɯ u |
| Mid | e | o |
| Open | æ | ɑ |
For the series of changes starting with Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic and ending with Proto-Finnic to Livonian and in several other of Tropylium’s contributions, the following alterations to the stand-in variable list apply.
Tropylium wishes to note that his sound changes are subject to change. (Note 2014/06/21: As per a Tumblr post of his, http://tropylium.tumblr.com/post/81916666722/index-diachronica-4-2, many of the compilations presented here are out of date or erroneous, and he still is updating his page on Finnic, http://www.frathwiki.com/Finnish.)
(From Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Proto-Uralic language”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Uralic_language&oldid=442512196>; the TCL thread and KQ pages proper; and Tropylium.)
Tropylium, from Hakulinen, Lauri (1979), “Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys”. Otava; Häkkinen, Kaisa (2004), “Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja”. WSOY; Kallio, Petri (2007), “Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf>; and from Janhunen, Juha (2007), “The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf>
ŋ → k / _#, in latives
ŋ → n / _# else
iw ow → y uː / _(C) (*)
x → @ / _C
m → n / _{t,tsʲ,#}
ɤ(ː?) ɑː æː → ɑ(ː?) oː eː / stressed
a → æ / {a,e,ê,i,y}(X)(C)(C)_, when unstressed
Aw → o / unstressed (possibly analogical)
i → e / _C, when unstressed
iw → u / unstressed
Tropylium, from Hakulinen, Lauri (1979), “Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys”. Otava; Häkkinen, Kaisa (2004), “Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja”. WSOY; Kallio, Petri (2007), “Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf>; and from Janhunen, Juha (2007), “The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf>
V → Vː / _#
ê ô → e o / _(X)Ci
ê → y / _(X)CA
ô → ɯ → i / _(X)CA
ej → i / unstressed
æ → e / _j, unstressed
ɑ → e / ”{o,u}(X)C_j
ɑ → o / ”{a,e,i}(X)C_j
ixi uxu → øː oː
xi → @ / else
x → w / {U,O}_C
x → j / {I,E}_C
UŋA eŋi → Oː øː
ŋi → @ / V_
ŋ → n / _t (?)
ŋ → j / _Cʲ (possibly _F instead?)
ŋ → w / _{A,O,U}
ŋ → w / {O,U}_
ŋ → w / _C ! _k
ŋ → w / C_
uwa → oː (*)
Uwi ewi → oː øː
i → ∅ / æw_
wI → i
ji → O / {i,e,y}
i → ∅ / Aj_#
i → ∅ / {o,u}j_
j → ∅ / C_i{C,#}
yje → øː → jø (?)
uw ij → ow ej / _C
tʃ tsʲ → ʃ sʲ / #_
ðʲ sʲ tsʲ(ː) lʲ → ð s ts(ː) l
nʲ → ni / #(C)i_V
nʲ → in / V_V
nʲ → n / else
n → ∅ / _tː
w → ∅ / o_st (*)
ð → t
tʃ → ts / _k, in South Estonian
tk → k / in Pre-Livonian (?)
tʃ tʃː → t tʃ
t → ts / _i ! following a coronal obstruent or “before a derivational suffix”
tj → ts / ! following a coronal obstruent or “before a derivational suffix”
ʃ → ʂ → x
s → x / _l
n → ∅ / _{s,ts}
w → ʋ
Tropylium, from Hakulinen, Lauri (1979), “Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys”. Otava; Häkkinen, Kaisa (2004), “Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja”. WSOY; Kallio, Petri (2007), “Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf>; and from Janhunen, Juha (2007), “The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf>
j w → i U / V_{C,#}
i → ∅ / {VC,ks}_ at the ends of a suffix
e → ∅ / C[+coronal]_%
pː tː tsː kː → pˑ tˑ tsˑ kˑ
p t ts s k → b d s z ɡ
b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / ! N_
ɣ → j~ʋ
βi → U / _#
f → ʋ / #_
ʋ → ∅ / #_{o,u,y}
j → ∅ / _i (*)
∅ → ʋ / #_{yː,øː,oː}
oi → o / unstressed
Vː → V[-long] / _i
{kt,pt} {kts,pts} → tː tːs
xk → kː (even across word boundaries)
(t(ː))sn kx(tx) rn ln → sː xː rː lː
{p,t,k}({p,t,k})n {p,t,k}({p,t,k})m → nː mː
{p,t,k} → ∅ / _st
{ks,nts} nt → s t / _#
ts tsˑ tsː → s θˑ θː
{z,x(ː)} → h
e → @ / h_ (suffixal)
{p,k} → h / _t
Tropylium, from Hakulinen, Lauri (1979), “Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys”. Otava; Häkkinen, Kaisa (2004), “Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja”. WSOY; Kallio, Petri (2007), “Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf>; and from Janhunen, Juha (2007), “The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf>
mb nd ŋɡ → mː nː ŋː
eː øː oː → ie yø uo
pˑ tˑ θˑ kˑ → p t θ k
j → i / C_, when initial in a suffix
Vh → hV / {j,v,n,r,l}_# (also some double-metathesis triggered by the condition of being m_ ?)
sn → ns
V → Vː / h_hC
V → Vː / _hC (sporadic)
{k,x} → ˟ / _#
t → ∅ / s_r
p → β → U / _R
t → z → U / _r{A,O}
t → z → @ / _r{i,e}
k → z → @ / _j
k → ɣ i / {i,e}_R{i,e}
k → ɣ → U / {A,O,U}_R ! R = j
β → ʋ
ʋ → ∅ / _UC
ið → j / ”V_V
lð rð → lː rː
ð → ∅ / ! ”V(X)_
ɣ → j / C_e
ɣ → ʋ / U_U
ɣ → ʔ / VV0_V0 ! V0 = U
ɣ → ∅ / else
h → ∅ / V[-stress](X)_V
AO → {A,O,U}ː / unstressed
e → i / A_, when unstressed
Ue → eː / unstressed
VU → Vː / _#
iU OU → Uː Oː
æ → a / e(C…)_(C…)o
e → ø / #(C…)_y
i → y / #(C…)l_y
i → y / #(C…)_væ
θ(ː) ð → ts d (this latter does have some highly sporadic exceptions; additionally, in some dialects these may become {t(ː),h~t} and {r,∅}, respectively)
Tropylium, from Hakulinen, Lauri (1979), “Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys”. Otava; Häkkinen, Kaisa (2004), “Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja”. WSOY; Kallio, Petri (2007), “Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf>; and from Janhunen, Juha (2007), “The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf>
n → ∅ / _#
d → ∅ / _r “in inherited vocabulary”
Va → Vː / unstressed
ie yɤ uo → iː yː uː / _A
Tropylium, from Hakulinen, Lauri (1979), “Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys”. Otava; Häkkinen, Kaisa (2004), “Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja”. WSOY; Kallio, Petri (2007), “Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf>; and from Janhunen, Juha (2007), “The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond”. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253. <http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf>
t ts s(C) n l r → tʲ tsʲ sʲ(C) nʲ lʲ rʲ / _i
ts(ʲ) → s(ʲ) / ! n_
e → ɤ / _C(C){a,o,u}
æ → ɑ / unstressed
h → ∅ / {#,C}_
Vn → Vː / _s
ɑ æ → æe / _(C…)i
V → ə / unstressed ! V = ɑ
ɑ → ə / VC(C)ɑC(C)_# when unstressed
Vh → Vːɦ / _C, except maybe ! _j and/or _ʋ
LV → VL / {#,V,O}_
p t(ʲ) s(ʲ) k → b d(ʲ) z(ʲ) ɡ / ! #_ or adjacent to C[-voice]
∅ → ʔ / (C)V_CV
ə → ∅ / _#
ə → ∅ / VC_CV
C → Cː / ʔ_V
dj lj rj ɡj → dʲ lːʲ rːʲ jɡ
ʋ → ∅ / {d,z}_
lʋ rʋ jʋ → lː rː jː
ʋ → ∅ / C_
VCːɑ → VːCɑ
Cː → C[- long] / ! in verbal forms when V_ə
ɑː au → ɔː ɔu (though sometimes ɑː develops, apparently at least partially due to metathesis?)
eː øː oː ɤ(ː) → iːe yːø uːo ɨ(ː)
ɦ → ʔ
sʲ tsʲ zʲ dzʲ → ʃʲ tʃʲ ʒʲ dʒʲ
æy ey → æu eu
y ø → i e / else
V → Vː / _RC(C)ɑ (includes diphthongs)
a → aː / VC_
e o → eː oː / _Cɑ
o → oː / _{RC#,i}
eː oː → je wo
w → ʋ / #_o
wo → ʊ / P_
ɔ(ː) → o(ː)
The Wikipedia provides the following reconstruction for the phonology of Proto-Uto-Aztecan, which here is adapted with slight modifications as to the layout:
| Bilabial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||
| Plosive | p | t | k kʷ | ʔ | |
| Fricative | s | ||||
| Affricate | ts | ||||
| Rhotic | r | ||||
| Approximant | j | w |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | i | ɨ | u |
| Mid | o | ||
| Open | a |
Quoth the Wiki, “*n and *ŋ may have actually been *l and *n, respectively.” It should be noted that there exists some discrepancy between this given reconstruction and in that set up for the studies deriving the reconstructions below. Radius Solis includes *h and *l as distinct phonemes as per the source he cited.
For the following Uto-Aztecan changes, Vu, Vs, and Vn refer to normal (“unaffecting”), “suspending”, and “nasalizing” vowels, respectively. According to Radius Solis, “Reconstructed PUA had three sets of vowels; this book calls them ‘suspending’, ‘unaltering’, and ‘nasalizing’. The nasalizing vowels likely were actually nasal, but it’s uncertain; their existence was deduced only by the sound changes that revolved around them. There’s few good guesses yet about the nature of the ‘suspending’ vowels, but their existence is likewise deducible from the sound changes that have been affected by them across a majority of the UA family - more changes than from the nasalizing series, occurring in all UA branches, enough to be pretty certain that it was a reality in PUA.”
(From Wikipedia contributors (2011), “Proto-Uto-Aztecan language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Uto-Aztecan_language&oldid=406159488>; and from Radius Solis’ changes listed on KneeQuickie and in the TCL thread proper)
Radius Solis, from from Voegelin, Charles F., Florence M. Voegelin, & Kenneth L. Hale (1962), “Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: I (Phonology)”. International Journal of American Linguistics 28: Memoir 17
p t ts s → v r ∅ h
∅ → h / Vu_k
s → ∅ / Vn_
{ŋ,l} → n
{w,j} → ∅ / medial
Radius Solis, from from Voegelin, Charles F., Florence M. Voegelin, & Kenneth L. Hale (1962), “Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: I (Phonology)”. International Journal of American Linguistics 28: Memoir 17
p → v / Vn_
k → q / _V[+low]
i → j / h_ ! _#
l h → n ∅ / medially
w → l / {#,V[+low]}_V[+low]
w → ŋʷ / ɨn_
o → ø
Radius Solis, from from Voegelin, Charles F., Florence M. Voegelin, & Kenneth L. Hale (1962), “Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: I (Phonology)”. International Journal of American Linguistics 28: Memoir 17
p → v / {Vn,ɨ}_ (the latter “sometimes”)
p → v / “other conditions not known”
t → l / medially
ts → tʃ
k → q / #_V[+low]
k → q / an_
“[I]solated other instances of k → q occur with uncertain conditions”
k → x / a_
ʔ → ∅ / #_
s → ʃ
l → n / medially
o ɨ → e o
V → ∅ / “in some final syllables (conditions are unknown and it varies by dialect)”
Radius Solis, from from Voegelin, Charles F., Florence M. Voegelin, & Kenneth L. Hale (1962), “Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: I (Phonology)”. International Journal of American Linguistics 28: Memoir 17
t → tɬ / _{a,u}
p → ∅ / {#,Vs}_
s ts → ʃ tʃ / _i
{ʔ,h} → ∅
ŋ → n
m → n / _#
l → n / #_
w → ∅ / _o
ɨ u → e {i,e} “(all */u/ affected, but conditions for when it became /i/ or /e/ are not known)”
“(What happened to PUA */r/ is not known. Nahuatl has no cognates that would have a reflex.)”
Pogostick Man, from Klein, Sheldon (1959), “Comparative Mono-Kawaiisu”. International Journal of American Linguistics 25(4):233 – 238
Possible development of vowel harmony
hkʷ hʔ (h)S Sː → w ʔ S[+ voiced] S[- voiced - long] / V_V
ts → z / V_V
hts → z / V_i
h → ∅ / V_tsV
h → ∅ / _{n,s,ʔ}
p → b / m_
*nː became “an apical nasal with devoiced release”
jː → j
a → o / P_
uV Vː → uː Vː (not sure if this occurs before or after the previous change)
k → ∅ / V_wV
Pogostick Man, from Klein, Sheldon (1959), “Comparative Mono-Kawaiisu”. International Journal of American Linguistics 25(4):233 – 238
(h)k → (h)q / _{o,a} ! ɨ_
kw → q / _a
(h)kʷ → hq(ʷ) / _{o,a}
m → h / _p
nː → h
ɨ → i / _h
uV → u(i)
Radius Solis, from from Voegelin, Charles F., Florence M. Voegelin, & Kenneth L. Hale (1962), “Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: I (Phonology)”. International Journal of American Linguistics 28: Memoir 17
p → w / {#,Vs}_
t → tʃ / _V[+high]
ts → s / _i
kʷ → b
h → ʔ / #_
s ŋ → h n
n → ɲ / _V[+high]
l → ɲ / #_ “(in doubt; initial *l occurs in too few cognates to be sure. Apparently PUA initial *l was rare and is of questionable certainty whether it existed at all.)”
l → ɭ
ɭ → ɖ / _a
w → ɡ
j → dʒ / _V[+high]
j → d / _V[+low]
V → ∅ / “when in the first syllable of a bisyllabic morpheme, if after a morpheme boundary in the word (all other first-syllable vowels have non-zero reflexes)”
i → ∅ / ts_#
l → i / {p,m,k(ʷ),w}_# “in all dialects, and varies by dialect after other consonants”
“What happened to PUA */r/ in O’odham is difficult to say. There are only two known cognates, each showing a different reflex: /ɭ/ and /ɖ/”
The following phonology for Proto-Basque (not Proto-Vasconic) is adapted from Egurtzegi (2013), citing Martinet (1974 [1950]: 533), but differs from that given in Tables 4.3 – 4.6 when accounting for other data in the paper. Capital letters indicate fortis phonemes, and the affricates were fortis as well.
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Nasal | n N | |||||
| Stop | p (P) | t T | k K | |||
| Fricative | f ? | s̺ s̻ | h | |||
| Affricate | ts̺ ts̻ | |||||
| Liquid | r R l L | |||||
| Glide | j | w |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
(From Egurtzegi, Ander (2013), “Phonetics and Phonology”, in Basque and Proto-Basque. <https://www.academia.edu/3570162/2013a_-_Basque_and_Proto-Basque_Phonetics_and_Phonology>)
Pogostick Man, from Egurtzegi, Ander (2013), “Phonetics and Phonology”, in Basque and Proto-Basque. <https://www.academia.edu/3570162/2013a_-_Basque_and_Proto-Basque_Phonetics_and_Phonology>; Owstrowski, Manfred, “History of the Basque Language”. <http://hisp462.tamu.edu/Classes/603/Lects/BasqueHist.pdf>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Aquitanian langauge”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aquitanian_language&oldid=609638407>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), ”Basque language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basque_language&oldid=610796497>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Vasconic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasconic_languages&oldid=607530415>
ś → {s(ː),ʃ} / _#
ś → s
s → ʃ / i_#
ts may become ʃs or sː? The written forms are 〈xs〉 and 〈ss〉
S[+ fortis] → S[- voice]ː (specifically, the source lists t[+ fortis] k[+ fortis] → t(ː) k(ː), both of the tokens with optional length suffixes and *aTa → 〈atta〉, so I’m extrapolating)
n[+ fortis] → n(ː) / V_V
n[- fortis] n[+ fortis] → {n,r}(?) n
N → [+ same POA] / _S
r[+ fortis] → ɾ / _#
r[+ fortis] → r
Fortis *L is of uncertain outcome, being written as 〈l〉 or 〈ll〉
ɡ → k / #_ (sometimes?)
There seem to have been a few (variant?) forms which possibly show height assimilation in vowels
Pogostick Man, from Egurtzegi, Ander (2013), ”Phonetics and Phonology”, in Basque and Proto-Basque. <https://www.academia.edu/3570162/2013a_-_Basque_and_Proto-Basque_Phonetics_and_Phonology>; Owstrowski, Manfred, “History of the Basque Language” <http://hisp462.tamu.edu/Classes/603/Lects/BasqueHist.pdf>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Proto-Basque language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Basque_language&oldid=605488703>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Aquitanian langauge”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aquitanian_language&oldid=609638407>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Basque language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basque_language&oldid=610796497>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Iberian language”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iberian_language&oldid=601317949>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Basque dialects”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basque_dialects&oldid=595514648>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Biscayan dialect”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biscayan_dialect&oldid=613190357>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Gipuzkoan dialect”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gipuzkoan_dialect&oldid=606871281>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Vasconic languages”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasconic_languages&oldid=607530415>; Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Navarro-Lapurdian dialect”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Navarro-Lapurdian_dialect&oldid=601150726>; and Campbell, Lyle, “Language Isolates and Their History, or, What’s Weird, Anyway?”. <http://www2.hawaii.edu/~lylecamp/CAMPBELL%20BLS%20isolates.pdf>
Pre-Proto-Basque may have had some stuff involving reduplication that ended up dropping the first consonant
fortis → aspirated / “in a prominent position” (i.e., word-initially?)
fortis → [- voice] / else
lenis → devoiced / “in a prominent word-initial position”
lenis → voiced fricative (→ approximant, at least by the 12th Century?) / unstressed
lenis (voiced) → fricative / {l,r,s̺,s̻,V}_{l,r,s̺,s̻,V}
— At least one reconstruction seems to indicate *s and *ś, which may have been an affricate and /s/. Pretty reliably, *-s tends to turn into -ts̺, and *-ś → -ts̻, probably after the below-mentioned affrication. Beyond that, it’s messy. *-tso seems to have become -tʃo/-tʃu, though.
Sʰ → F → h (→ ∅) / #_
S → S[+ voiced] / #_
“[T]wo similar vocalic segments” usually contract, though some dialects (especially Biscayan) seem not to exhibit this
Vn → Ṽ / _# (seems to have been reverted in most dialects, except for Souletin)
Vn → Ṽ / _V (?)
V → Ṽ / _N (Souletin, perhaps in other dialects?)
d → l / #_ (except verbs)
n →m / u_V
n → ɲ / {i,ɪ}_V
n → h̃ / V_V
nb → mː → m
N → [+ same POA] / _C
b → m / _VN
{ɾ,r} → ∅ / #_
l → ɾ / V_V
ɾ → r / _C
r → ɾ / _#
C → ∅ / r_
Cr → Cɾ → CVɾ (perhaps not a sound change per se, just a historical tendency)
ɾ → ∅ / V_V (Souletin)
*L (fortis) → l (or *lh → lː, which then lost gemination?)
ð → some sort of tap distinct from ɾ (Biscayan, Guipuscoan, High Navarrese)
b → ∅ / #_B (a few exceptions, mostly before _u)
F[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (sometimes, usually involving “compound surnames”?)
S[+ voice] → S[- voice] / F[+ sibilant]_
Ṽ → Vɲ / _V (not Souletin)
Ṽ → Vn or a diphthong (not Souletin)
h̃ → h (not Souletin)
u ũ → y ỹ / _r(p(ʰ),β,k(ʰ),ɣ,l,s̺,s̻,ʃ,h) (Souletin)
u ũ → y ỹ / _{s̻,ts̺,ts̻} (but not _s̺) (Souletin)
õ → ũ (Souletin)
∅ → a / #_{ra,ro} (sporadic)
∅ → e / #_r
∅ → e / #_{s̺,s̻}C
i → u / _(C…)u (Roncalese)
i → y / _(C…)y (Souletin)
e → o / _(C…)o (eastern dialects, Bermeo Biscayan)
e → o / o(C…)_ (eastern dialects)
a o e → ɛ u i / {i,u}(C…)_ (this [ɛ] is tentatively marked as such; Egurtzegi transcribes it as /e/ but says it’s not as close as /e/)
o → u / _n{C,#} (Souletin; some raising occurred elsewhere)
a → e / _$a (Biscayan, Alavese, some Guipuscoan)
o e → u i / _$a (raising of *o is less common)
e → i / _{n,C[+ sibilant]} (sporadic)
e → a / {V,C}_r (“mainly in the western dialects”)
u i → o e / _r{C,#}
“[S]ome variations between /a/ and /e/ or /e/ and /i/” / _l{C,#}
∅ → j / V_{N,s̺,s̻}S
∅ → j / u_V (eastern dialects)
{w,y} → ∅ / _ja
∅ → m / o$_V (Orozko Biscayan)
∅ → V / Vk_# (Zeberio Biscayan)
e → ∅ / #_ (Navarrese, rare)
e → j / #_V (at least a few times?)
a → ∅ / _V
V → ∅ / Vj_
h → ∅ (western dialects)
{w,β}h → f
*h may have metathesized given that it’s only found in the first two syllables of proto-forms
h…h → ∅…h (“affect[s] both the oral /h/ and the nasalized aspiration”)
*-ɾ → -h stuff in compounds
l n →ʎ ɲ / E_
{ɾ,r} → ʎ / {i,j}_ (eastern dialects)
s̻ ts̻ → ʃ tʃ / {E,j}_ (mostly Biscayan)
t → c / {E,j}_ (“some areas”)
t → tʃ / {E,j}_ (partially spread amongst Biscayan and Guipuscoan)
d ð → ɟ ʝ / {E,j}_ ? (“some dialects”)
d ð → ɟ ʝ / {ʎ,ɲ}_ (Guipuscoan, High Navarrese)
{ɡ,ɣ} → {ɟ,ʝ} / {E,j}_
ɡ → dʒ / {E,j}_ (“in some Biscayan areas”)
j → ʝ → j (northern High Navarrese, most Labourd, some Biscayan)
j → ʝ → ʒ (Souletin, sporadic in northwestern Biscayan)
j → ʝ (some Biscayan and Navarrese)
j → ʝ → ɟ (typical of Low Navarrese)
j → ʝ → ʒ → dʒ (northwestern Biscayan)
j → ʝ → ʒ → ʃ (Aescoan, Salazarese, Roncalese, most southern High Navarrese)
j → ʝ → ʒ → ʃ → x (Guipuscoan, northwestern High Navarrese, eastern Biscayan)
j → χ (probably through intermediates like above, Wikipedia doesn’t go into particulars of how and where)
ʎ ɲ → jl jn (“common in Low Navarrese, Labourdin, and is even regular in the High Navarrese of Sakana”)
Vowel syncope:
— V → ∅ / S_{ɾ,l} (more common in Roncalese and Salazarese, but also in Navarrese and Aescoan?)
— V → ∅ / C[+ sibilant]_ɾ (Roncalese and Salazarese)
— V → ∅ / {O,ɾ,r}_O (Roncalese, Salazarese, Navarrese, Aescoan)
n[+ fortis] → n
Something about final devoicing of stops and initial stops losing voicing as a result of vowel deletion
e → ∅ / #Ur_
a → ∅ / V_# (Guipuscoan; happens because of reanalysis of the definite article)
V → ∅ / _#, in trisyllables
i → ∅ / _#, in disyllables
u {o,e} → ∅ a / _#, in disyllables (eastern dialects)
“-a or -e from the definite article” is dropped Markina Biscayan and Getxo Biscayan
Some vowel metathesis only when vowels are matched in height
hu hi → ʊ ɪ / {o,e}_ (also happened with /a/ sometimes, but usually such sequences just dropped one vowel)
Something about diphthongs occurring where intervocalic /n/ was lost
VɪC → VCʲ
Glide dissimilation if the homorganic vowel was in the following syllable, but usually the glide just deleted
aɪ → eɪ → e (rare)
aʊ → aɪ / !_{ɾ,r,s̺,s̻} (Souletin, Roncalese)
eʊ → {e,eɡu}
eɪ → e / #_
oɪ → uɪ (rare)
eð (→ e ?) → j / #_V
e → j / #_a
e → ∅ / #_e
ʊa → o “especially after a velar stop”
ʊe → e
C[- voice] → C[+ voice] / {l,N}_ (not Roncalese or Souletin)
Some speakers (Labourd and Low Navarrese?) have ʀ for r, and a few have ɢ̆ for ɾ
l gets a velar(ized?) articulation in Souletin (possibly only in the coda?)
Souletin preserves something involving historical aspiration in pretonic position, apparently
Souletin keeps initial ʃ- and tʃ- distinct; Labourdin only has ʃ-, and the rest apparently only have tʃ-?
C[+ sibilant] → C[+ affricate] / _#
s̻ ts̺ → s̺ ts̻ (Biscayan, partially in Guipuscoan, Donostia, San Sebastián, though these latter two may be varieties of Guipuscoan)
s̻ → s̺ / _{C,#} (sometimes)
From the Wikipedia article on Biscayan: “Convergence of sibilants: z, x and s > x, s and tz, tx and ts > tz.” I’m not sure what this means. 〈s z〉 are apparently s̻ s̺, and 〈x〉 is ʃ.
its̺ → tʃ / _# (Biscayan)
oa ea → u(e) i(e) / _#
Beterri Guipuscoan has VjV# where Biscayan has VɲV# and regular Basque has VV#
s̺ → tʃ / #_ (Guipuscoan)
s̺ → ʃ̺ “for most French Basque speakers (Trask 1997:84), due to French influence” according to Campbell
Accentual changes:
— Navarrese and Labourdin seem to have gotten rid of phonemic accent; High Navarrese typically stresses the penult, while Low Navarrese and Labourdin are claimed to lack stress on the word level.
— Guipuscona, southeastern Biscayan, and western varieties of Navarrese stress the second syllable (unless it is a disyllable, in which case the first syllable gets the accent, though a few varieties don’t do this).
— North Biscayan does something with roots and affixes marked for prosody; ”[m]ost native roots and almost all singular affixes are unaccented”; loans, ”compounds and plural affixes” tend to be accented. Stress is typically assigned to the syllable immediately before the accent, but a few areas accent the penult or the antepenult.
— Souletin does its own thing with accent. Stress usually falls on the penult, but contractions can mess with this (one of the examples given in the paper is “alhába ‘daughter’ + abs. sg. -a > alhabá ‘the daughter”’). Something similar is posited for “older… Salazarese”. Roncalese was much the same, but the stress was stem-oriented as opposed to word-oriented unless contraction occurred, and there’s some stuff about proparoxytones that Souletin didn’t have.
Pogostick Man, from Wares, Alan C. (1954?), “Three Pai Dialects of Lower California”. Summer Institute of Linguistics Bartholomew Collection of Unpublished Materials
tʃ → ʃ / _{w,i}
tʃ → ∅ / _xʷ
tʃ → s
t → tʃ / ! n_
kʷ → k / _#
b → p
o → u
s → ʂ
ʔ → ∅ / _{ɲ,j}
{w,j} → ∅ / a_
Vː → V ?
Stress lost?
Pogostick Man, from Wares, Alan C. (1954?), “Three Pai Dialects of Lower California”. Summer Institute of Linguistics Bartholomew Collection of Unpublished Materials
b → β
xʷ → w / tʃ_
kʷ xʷ → k x / _#
ʃ ɬ → ʂ l
i → ə / unstressed
n → ∅ / _t
ʔ → ∅ / _ɲ
aw aj → o e
Pogostick Man, from Wares, Alan C. (1954?), “Three Pai Dialects of Lower California”. Summer Institute of Linguistics Bartholomew Collection of Unpublished Materials
kʷ xʷ → q χ / _# (the paper calls these “back velars”)
b → p
i → ə / unstressed
u → o / _K
t → ∅ / n_
tʃ → ∅ / _xʷ
ɲj → n ∅ / ʔ_
Vː → V (sporadic? conditioned?)
Contrastive stress lost?
A miscellaneous collection of vowel shifts.
Pogostick Man, from Schadeberg, Theo C. (1995), “Spirantization and the 7-to-5 Vowel Merger in Bantu”. In Sound Change, M. Dominicy and D. Demolin (Eds.), Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.
S → F / _{i,u} (Do not necessarily have to be fricatives at the same POA; in some cases, the phones go to null or to /l/)
ɪ ʊ → i u
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “California English”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=California_English&oldid=584388388>; and Eckert, Penelope, “Vowel Shifts in Northern California and the Detroit Suburbs”. <http://www.stanford.edu/~eckert/vowels.html>
æ ɪ → e i / _ŋ; some speakers (esp. in southern regions) may also have pin-pen and “a single phoneme in contrast to the nasal diphthong [ãɪ̃] of the U.S. Northeast” (though the article doesn’t specify what this is; maybe it’s just plain ã)
/ɪ/ otherwise has a highly variable pronunciation
æ → {eə̯,ɪə̯} / _N
{æ,e} → ɛ / _ɹ
æ → a
ʊ ʌ ɛ → ʌ ɛ æ
ɑ → ɔ (does not occur in Sacramento)
u → {iʊ̯,ʉ,ɯ}
oʊ̯ → eʊ̯ (“common only within certain social groups”)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Dutch Phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_phonology&oldid=602553868>
ɛi œy ɔu → ɛː œː ɔː
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Dutch Phonology”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_phonology&oldid=602553868>
ɛi œy ʌu → ai ay au
eː øː oː → ɛi œy ɔu
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Phonological history of Scots”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_Scots&oldid=582962563>; and Wikipedia contributors (2014), “Scottish Vowel Length Rule”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_vowel_length_rule&oldid=589349104>
ai → ɛi → əi / when stem-final
uː → ʌu / when-stem final, in northern varieties
øː → wi / {k,ɡ}_ (in Mid Northern dialects)
øː → i (in northern dialects)
øː → (j){u,ʌ} / _{k,x} (outcome varies depending upon dialect)
a → i / _n (in northern varieties)
a → e / _n (otherwise)
a → {ɛ,e} / _rC
ai oi ui ei au ou iu ɛ(o)u → eː oe əi iː {ɑː,ɔː} ʌu ju j(ʌ)u
ɛː → ɛi (→ əi?) / in some northern varieties
iː eː ɛː aː oː uː {øː,yː} → əi i {i,e} e o u ø
æ → ɛ / _C[+alveolar]
a ɔ u → {a,ɑ} ɔ ʌ
Application of the Scottish vowel-length rule:
— V → Vː / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#}
— əi → aɪ / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#} (pursuant to the above)
Pogostick Man, from Schuh, Russel (2005), “The Great Ngamo Tone Shift”
In the Gudi dialect, the tone on a given domain (which can be more than one syllable/mora, as long as said syllables/morae are consecutive and share the same tone) shift to the following domain, with a low tone cropping up on the first domain. The original tone of the word-final domain floats or tacks itself onto the next domain, depending upon the surrounding conditions. When utterance-final, these tones remain on that domain. This can cause a falling tone, but not a rising tone, which Ngamo does not permit; where such would occur, tone goes to high.
Jaaaaaa and Ran, citing http://www.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionary/chapters/history.php
iː uː → əj əw → ɑj ɑw
eː oː → iː uː
ɛː → eː → iː
aː ɔː → ɛː oː → eː ow → ej (əw)
Chris Zoller, from Trask, R.L. (1996), Historical Linguistics
u(ː) → y(ː)
oː → uː
eː ɛː → iː eː
ai ɔi → ɛ yː
eː → iː
y(ː) ɔː → i(ː) ɔ
ɛu au → ɛv av
Pogostick Man, from Schuh, Russel (2007), “The Great Ngamo Tone Shift (GNTS)”
Tones move to the following vowel with the initial syllable acquiring a low tone. Original final tones are lost.
PM_Vanhanen
“Long close-mid vowels have become diphthongs:”
eː øː oː → ie yø uo
“In some dialects, they have shifted further to /uɑ/, /yæ/ and /iæ/ or /iɑ/ depending on front-back vowel harmony: /tieto/ to /tiɑto/ but /tietæ/ to /tiætæ/.”
“These shifts have occurred in some eastern dialects.”
ɑː æː ɑi æi → uɑ iæ ɑe æe
ei oi øi → eː oe øe
ɑu ou → ɑː oː
æy øy → æː øː
eu → eo
li ni ri si → lʲi nʲi rʲi sʲi
LoneWolf, from Newman, J. (1983). Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orentale XII.1:65 – 79.
Relevant changes occurring before the shift:
a → ɔ / _{ŋ,k}
uə yə → ɔ œ / _{n,t}
ə → ∅ / i_{ŋ,k}
∅ → ə / C[+ labiovelar]_i
∅ → ə / _u
V → Vː / _#
The actual vowel shift:
ə → a
a → {aː,ə} “(the environments for these respective changes are somewhat unclear)”
ə → a / _{i,u}
iəu → au
a → aː / _{i,u}
a → ə → ∅ / i_u
Other relevant changes occurring at the same time:
ə → ∅ / W_
W → ∅ / C_
(Apparently, /i u/ either were or became glides in the appropriate positions)
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2013), “Northern Cities Vowel Shift”. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Cities_Vowel_Shift&oldid=581062574>
æ raises and diphthongizes, typically becoming one of {ɛə eə ɪə}
ɑ ɔ → a ɑ
ɛ → ɐ
ʌ → ɔ
ɪ → ɪ̞
johanpeturdam
NB: “The reflexes of the vowels are given in the order of their reflex when stressed/long, and unstressed/short”
{a,æː} → ɛa / a
aː → ɔa “(except NE of the Faroes → aː)” / ɔ
e → eː / ɛ
eː → ɛa “(except Suðuroy → eː)” / a “(except Suðuroy → ɛ)”
{i,y} → iː / ɪ
{iː,yː} → ʊi / ʊ(i)
o → oː / ɔ
oː → {ɔu,ɛu,œu} / œ “(except Suðuroy → ɔ)”
u → uː / short: ʊ / unstressed: {o,ɔ}
uː → ʉu / ʏ
{œ,ɔ} → øː/œ “(except Suðuroy → ʏ)”
Macska
“PIE *a and *o with their variants have merged in the Balto-Slavic period; below they’re written both as *a.”
eː → æ
en an → ẽ ã
ej → i
ew → ju
i → ı̆ [ə?] → {e,a} (strong)/∅ (weak) “in modern languages”
iː → i
a aː → o a
aj → {æ2,i2} “(reduced)”
aw → u
u → ŭ [ɤ?] → {e,o,ɤ,a} (strong)/∅ (weak) “in modern languages”
uː → ɨ
Pogostick Man, from Frellesvig, Bjarke and John Witman (2005), “The Japanese-Korean vowel correspondences”
e o → je wo / _#
e o → i u / else
{ɨ,ə} → o
{u,ɨ}i {,a,i {ɨi,i{a,ə}} u{ɨ,a,ə} → wi e je wo
Pogostick Man, from Jacques, Guillaume, and Alexis Michaud (2011), “Approaching the historical phonology of three highly eroded Sino-Tibetan languages: Naxi, Na and Laze”. Diachronica 28:4 (2011), 468 – 498; citing Matisoff 2003:186, 248 – 249, 314
-i -i{p,k} -it -i{m,ŋ} -in → -i -ɨʔ -iʔ -ɛ -ɨ
-u -up -ut -uk -um -un -uŋ → -u -ɔʔ -əʔ -uʔ -ɔ -ə -ɛ
Pogostick Man, from Ultan, Russell (1964), “Proto-Maidun Phonology”. International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Oct., 1964), 355 – 370.
u i e a → y e a o
Pogostick Man, from Mesthrie, Rajend (2002), Language in South Africa
NB: The author gives ı̆ as the shifted vowel but calls it “centralized”; based on this description, I’m calling it /ɨ/.
æ ɛ ɪ → ɛ e ɨ
Pogostick Man, from Wikipedia contributors (2012), “Southern American English”.
ɛ → ɪ / _N
“Lax and tense vowels often neutralize before /l/”
aɪ → aː / _#
aɪ → aː / _C[+ voiced]
aɪ → ɑeː / else (only for some speakers)
aɪ → aː / else (only for some speakers)
æ ɛ ɪ → æj(ə) ɛj(ə) ɪj(ə)
ɛj(ə) ɪj(ə) i eɪ → ej(ə) ij(ə) ɪi ɛi
uʊ oʊ → ʉʊ̈ əʊ̈ (a bit of a guesstimate based upon the prose description in the article and the mean-formant-value chart cited from Labov, Ash & Bobert (2006))
ɔ → ɑɒ (for some speakers)
ɑɹ → ɒɹ (“often”)
z → d / _n (not strictly a vowel shift but included here anyway because it’s cool, and also because it doesn’t occur in 〈hasn’t〉 because of the influence of 〈hadn’t〉)
Stress reassignment to the initial syllable (again, not strictly a vowel shift)
Merger of ɔɹ and ɑɹ (“in some regions”)
Loss of distinction between ɪɹ and ɪəɹ, and between ʊəɹ and ɔɹ
Pronunciation of the 〈l〉 in words like 〈walk〉 and 〈talk〉 (again, not really a vowel development)
æ/ɑː → æɪ
This section replicates the “Most wanted sound changes” article from Knee Quickie. It is presented mostly as it was found with the following modifications:
https://.
w → p (Navajo, some Polynesian languages)
kʲ ɡʲ → k ɡ (Danish)
ś → k (Possibly unconditional; some Samoyedic langs)
pʲ → kʲ (some Romanian dialects, Tsakonian)
ts → t (unconditional; some Samoyedic langs)
t → k (general Polynesian)
n → ŋ (Samoan, but only in colloquial speech)
j → p (some Polynesian languages, such as Levei and Drehet) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Austronesian_language)
b → #c, -nc- (Sundanese)
ŋ → {x,h} (various Mayan languages)
h → ŋ (Nyole)
ʕ → ŋ (allegedly in European Hebrew, both Sephardic and Ashkenazi, but possibly not a sound change so much as a substitution) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language#Varieties_of_ayin, http://sites.google.com/site/londonsephardiminhag/pronunciation, http://www.forward.com/articles/105938/)
f → p (? claimed to have occurred independently in Proto-Semitic and Proto-Omotic, and to a limited extent in Egyptian (but this may be related to the Semitic change); note that the Wikipedia article is cited to a single source and that source is admittedly theoretical, and acknowledges on page 77 another reconstruction that doesn’t believe Proto-Afro-Asiatic had /f/ at all) (Page 77 of http://is.gd/WNyXdn, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afro-Asiatic_language)
tš → t (general Baltic-Finnic; may not be unconditional but was certainly the most common outcome)
r → ɡʟ → ɣ (Hiw) (http://is.gd/jCDLO1)
mb nd → ʙ dr (Nias)
Western and Eastern Armenian often have swapped voicing in stop consonants: e.g. vardapet vs. vartabed. This is a result of changes related to aspiration.
w → f (Common Celtic; I’m not sure of the conditions)
m → n / _i (Tsakonian)
{t,k} → ∅ / V_V (Marathi) probably with voiced stops as intermediates, since they also became silent
p → w / V_V (Marathi)
b d ɡ → bː dː ɡː / V_V (some dialects of Italian; there may be more to it than this, since words like “repubblica” are in standard Italian and not just dialects)
t → k / _s̩ (Ōgami) (NB: The article doesn’t have an underscore indicating whether this occurs before or after the /s̩/, but the linked page indicates where this change occurred) (http://amritas.com/101023.htm#10192359)
n → i / _s and sometimes other fricatives (Montana Salish)
y → u (some mainland Greek dialects, and Tsakonian; this particular sound change has been said in some places to be impossible) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsakonian_language#Consonants)
i u → s̩ f̩ (Ōgami) (http://amritas.com/101023.htm#10192359)
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