| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic to Proto-Omotic | t → ∅ / _s#
|
| a → o / #Cw_{(d)l,s3}
|
| w → ∅ / #C_V, except _i(ː)
|
| 6.1.1 Proto-Omotic to North Omotic | e → i / #N_C
|
| e → i / #l_{P,C[+voiced]}
|
| e → i / #b_
|
| e → i / #{s,ʃ,tsʼ}_{k(w),ʔ}
|
| e o → i u / #C_P
|
| e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C
|
| e o → i u / #{k(ʼ),x}_{t(ʼ),tsʼ}
|
| e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C$
|
| e o → i u / #P_{tsʼ,tʃʼ}
|
| a → o / #{z,dʒ}_P
|
| e(ː) → i(ː) / #C[+sibilant]_{d,n,r}
|
| Vː → V / #K[-voice]_C
|
| u → uː / #S[+voice]_P[-voice]
|
| Vː → V / #C_C$ + $(V)C$ suffix
|
| 6.1.1.1 North Omotic to Bench | x2 → k / #_
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| 6.1.1.2 North Omotic to Dizin | x2 → k / _#
|
| 6.1.1.3 North Omotic to Kafa | b → w / _$#
|
| x2 → k / #_
|
| {s3,ʒ} → ʃ / #_
|
| s3 → s / V_$#
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_Vb
|
| 6.1.1.4 North Omotic to Maale | x2 → h / #_
|
| tsʼ → tʃʼ / #_
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| 6.1.1.5 North Omotic to Shekkacho | z → j / {#,V}_
|
| ʒ → ʃ / #_
|
| {s3,ts,ʒ} → s / _$#
|
| s3 → ʃ / #_
|
| s3 → s / V_$#
|
| h1 → {h,∅} / #_
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_Vb
|
| 6.1.1.6 North Omotic to Wolaytta | x2 s3 → k ʃ / V_$#
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| dʼ → tʼ / #_
|
| 6.1.1.7 North Omotic to Yemsa | x2 → k / #_
|
| ts → s / #_
|
| h1 → {h,∅} / #_
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| l → n / #_VC
|
| 6.1.1.8 North Omotic to Zayse-Zergulla | x2 → h / #_
|
| x3 → ɡ / V_#
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| 6.1.2.2 South Omotic to Dime | kʼ → ɡʼ / #_
|
| 6.2.1 Proto-Erythrean to Proto-Cushitic | b → m / #_Vn
|
| ɡ → k / #{d,w}V_
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_Vx$
|
| 6.2.1.1.3 Proto-Agaw to Kemantney | kʼ → χʷ / #_
|
| 6.2.1.1.4 Proto-Agaw to Xamtanga | kʼ → {χʷ,qʷ} / #_
|
| 6.2.2 Proto-Erythrean to Proto-North Erythrean | in → ŋ / #_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.1 Proto-North Erythrean to Proto-Boreafrasian | h → ħ / #_Vs
|
| V → ∅ / _# “in nominals”
|
| ŋ → ∅ / #_CV
|
| 6.2.2.1.2 Proto-Boreafrasian to Egypto-Berber | l → ∅ / #{d,tʼ}_VC
|
| ɬ → s / #_VC
|
| f → p / #_V{Z,C[-voice],r}
|
| p → b / #dlV_
|
| k(w) → tʃ / #_Vt
|
| ɡ(w) → dʒ / #_Vd
|
| q → i / #_V{Z,C[+dental]}
|
| ʕ → i / #_VR
|
| tlʼ → dl / #_Vħr
|
| r → l / #_V(V)O[+labial]
|
| r → ʔ / C_{t,w,j}# ! C = {ɡ,m,n,r,w,ʃ,x}
|
| l → j / #_iC ?
|
| l → r / #nV_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.3 Ancient Egyptian to Coptic | n → l / #_Vb
|
| n → l / #_(V){s,ʃ,h}V{m,b}#
|
| n → l / #_V{m,b}{s,ʃ,h}
|
| n → l / #_Vk
|
| r → l / #(C)_c(C)# ?
|
| r → l / #o_#
|
| 6.2.2.1.4 Proto-Boreafrasian to Proto-Semitic | ɣ → ɡ / #_VCH
|
| ɣ(w) → ɡ / #_Vx
|
| kʼ(w) → k / #dlV_
|
| ʔ → ʕ / #K_r#
|
| 6.2.2.1.6 Classical Arabic to Cypriot Arabic | ∅ → i / #al$_z
|
| aː → a / ! _#
|
| aːʔ → e / E(C)(C)_#
|
| aː → a / {Cˤ,w}_#
|
| 6.2.2.1.7 Classical Arabic to Egyptian Arabic | V → Vː / _# + suffix
|
| 6.2.2.1.8 Classical Arabic to Coastal Hadhrami Arabic | V[-long] → ∅ / #C_C, in some words
|
| 6.2.2.1.9 Classical Arabic to Wādı̄ Hadhrami Arabic | V[-long] → ∅ / #C_C (sporadic?)
|
| 6.2.2.1.10 Classical Arabic to Hassāniyya Arabic | V[-long] → ∅ / C_{C,#} (except for the feminine marker)
|
| — j w → i u / #_CV
|
| — j w → iː uː / #_CC
|
| 6.2.2.1.14 Classical Arabic to Moroccan Arabic | {u,ə} → ∅ / ! C_C(C)#
|
| Cˤ → C / {#,V}_V
|
| 6.2.2.1.17 Classical Arabic to Tunisian Arabic | Vː → V[-long] / _# (except as below)
|
| 6.2.2.1.18 Proto-Semitic to Biblical Hebrew | — aː → oː / ! _#
|
| — iː → eː / _#
|
| — i u → e a / _R{$,#} (in verbs)
|
| — i u → e o / _C{$,#} (in verbs)
|
| — aj → ɛː / _#
|
| — a → ∅ / _#
|
| — u → ɔ / _C{$,#}
|
| ʕ → ∅ / _{$,#}
|
| at → aː / _# (in feminine noun endings)
|
| 6.2.2.1.19 Biblical Hebrew to Modern Israeli Hebrew | ə → ɛ / #R_C or when breaking up what would otherwise be a three-consonant cluster; in the case of two schwas, only the first one is dropped
|
| h → ∅ / _#
|
| 7 Algonquian | 7.1 Proto-Algonquian to Kennebec River Abenaki | l → n / #_
|
| a → e / #C_OO
|
| a → ∅ / #_OO
|
| V → ∅ / _#
|
| iw → o / _#
|
| w → ∅ / _# ! k(ː)_
|
| j → ∅ / _# ! P_
|
| i → ∅ / #w_
|
| θ → n / #_
|
| 7.2 Proto-Algonquian to St. Francis Abenaki | V[- high - long] → ∅ / #C_OO
|
| a → ∅ / #_OO
|
| V → ∅ / _#
|
| iw → o / _#
|
| w → ∅ / _# ! k(ː)_
|
| j → ∅ / _# ! p_
|
| θ → n / #_
|
| nj → i / #_
|
| 7.3 Proto-Algonquian to Proto-Arapaho-Atsina | (W)V → ∅ / _#
|
| e → i / #_
|
| W → n / {#,V}_
|
| s → n / #_
|
| r → n / {#,V}_
|
| 7.3.1 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Arapaho | ∅ → ʔ / CV[-long]_#
|
| ʃ m → x w / B_#
|
| ʃ k m → s tʃ b / E_#
|
| (V[-long])N → ∅ / _#
|
| ∅ → h / #_V
|
| h → ∅ / _#
|
| 7.3.2 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Gros Ventre | ʃ {θ,t} m k → s ts tʲ bʲ / _{i(ː),j,#}
|
| (V[-long])N → ∅ / _#
|
| ∅ → ʔ / #_V
|
| 7.4 Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot | ∅ → x / _s ! _C{C,#}
|
| {ʃ,tʃ} → s / #_
|
| x → sː / {i,#e,ja,ke}_
|
| ∅ → s / {i(ː),#e}_t
|
| e → i / {#,k}_
|
| ∅ → j / {oːw,iːj}_i#
|
| w → j / {r,k}_i#
|
| ∅ → i / #_jC
|
| ∅ → i / C_jV#
|
| i(ː)wi → i / _#
|
| {me,ne} → ∅ / #_O “(followed by truncation of following x)”
|
| {we,wiː} → o / #_
|
| e → a / _#
|
| 7.11 Proto-Algonquian to Munsee Delaware | w → ∅ / {p,m}_#
|
| V → ∅ / _# ! some monosyllables and analogical developments, in the latter of which long vowels were shortened
|
| ə[+weak] → ∅ / #_C
|
| x → χʷ / o(ː)_{V,#}
|
| 7.12 Proto-Algonquian to Menominee | we → o / #_
|
| V[-long] → ∅ / _# “[does not apply in disyllabic words containing two short vowels]”
|
| ∅ → h / V[-long]_#
|
| e → i / #(C)_ ! _H
|
| {w,j} → ∅ / C_#
|
| C → ∅ / C_#
|
| Vː → V[-long] / CC(G)_C{V,#} “[i.e., when following a cluster but not followed by a cluster. Only applies ‘after the first long vowel of a nonglottal word, and everywhere in a glottal word’]”
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _C{V,#} in even syllables; “does not apply in the second syllable of a non-glottal word”
|
| 7.13 Proto-Algonquian to Miami-Illinois | {θ,l} → r → n / #_ (and possibly in other places as well)
|
| mV[-long] → ∅ / #_{ʰC,s,ʃ} (allophonic, “optional”)
|
| S → ⁿS / #NV_ (sporadic)
|
| 7.14 Proto-Algonquian to Mi’kmaq | k → χ / _(w)a(ː) ! #_
|
| 7.15 Proto-Algonquian to Ojibwe | {j,w}V[-long] → ∅ / C_# in disyllables with Vː or in tri(-plus-)syllables
|
| {w,j}V[-long] → ∅ / Vː_# (Whimemsz is unsure if this change is across-the-board or not)
|
| V[-long] → ∅ / V[-long]{w,j}_# (Whimemsz is unsure if this change is across-the-board or not)
|
| 7.17 Proto-Algonquian to Shawnee | e → i / #(C)_ “(but remains e in a few cases?)”
|
| wa → o / #_
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _#
|
| ∅ → h / #_V
|
| ∅ → i / #C_jVː “(for some speakers)”
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.1 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Japonic | b → p / #_
|
| tʃ dʒ → t d / #_
|
| n → m / #_
|
| ŋ → m / #_{æ,ø,y}
|
| l(ʲ) → n / #_
|
| 8.2 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Korean | b → p / #_
|
| ɡ → k / #_
|
| {nʲ,ŋ} → n / #_
|
| l(ʲ) → n / #_
|
| 8.3 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Mongolic | pʰ → {h,j} / #_
|
| pʰ → b / #_U[+high pitch]
|
| tʰ → d / _#
|
| tʃ → dʒ / #_i
|
| k → ɡ / ! #_
|
| ʃ → tʃ / #_a
|
| nʲ → dʒ / #_
|
| ŋ → ɡ / #_u
|
| ŋ → n / #_{a,o,e}
|
| ŋ → {∅,j} / #_
|
| l → {n,l} / #_
|
| lʲ → dʒ / #_i
|
| lʲ → d / #_
|
| 8.4 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Tungusic | t → dʒ / #_{æ,ø,y}
|
| t → d / #_
|
| k → {k,ɡ} / #_
|
| kʰ → x / #_
|
| 8.5 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Turkic | e → ja / #_C{e,i}
|
| {pʰ,ŋ} → {∅,j} / #_
|
| tʰ → d / #_(V){lʲ,r(ʲ)}
|
| {t,tʃ} → d / #_
|
| ʃ → tʃ / #_a
|
| m n(ʲ) → b j / #_
|
| {ʒ,dʒ} → j / #_ (marked as to Pre-Proto-Turkic)
|
| {d,n} → j / #_ (?) (marked as to Pre-Proto-Turkic)
|
| {N,l,r,ʃ,z} → ∅ / #_
|
| p → ɸ → h / #_
|
| {d,n}ʲ sʲ → j ʃ / #_
|
| 8.5.1 Proto-Turkic to Proto-Kypchak | d ɣ → t x / _#
|
| d → t / #_ (“kind of”, something about evidence from borrowings)
|
| 8.5.1.1 Proto-Kypchak to Kazakh | j → dʒ / #_ (did not occur in Qara Nogay)
|
| 8.5.1.2 Proto-Kypchak to Kyrgyz | j → dʒ / #_
|
| ∅ → U / #_{l,r} (not sure what 〈U〉 represents here; maybe just some sort of back vowel?)
|
| 8.5.2 Proto-Turkic to Sakha | s → ∅ / #_
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.1.1 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan | j → {d,t} / #_
|
| w → ∅ / #_
|
| q → h / _#
|
| iw uj → {i,?} i / _#
|
| — aj aw → ej ow / _#
|
| — aj aw → e ow / _#
|
| C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
|
| HəS → (h)ə(N)S / #_
|
| 10.1.1.1 Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan to Balinese | w → b / i_#
|
| 10.1.1.2 Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan to Sasak | h → q / _# (might’ve been a retention?)
|
| iw ow ej → i o e / _#
|
| V(h) → V(q) / _# (again, might’ve been a retention?)
|
| a →ə / _# (Meno-mene and Mriak-mriku only)
|
| r → h / _# (Meno-mene and Mriak-mriku only)
|
| 10.1.1.3 Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan to Sumbawan | h → q / _# (might’ve been a retention?)
|
| w → ∅ / i_#
|
| ej ow → e o / _#
|
| V(h) → V(q) / _# (again, might’ve been a retention?)
|
| 10.1.2 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Philippine | {*D,*Z,z} → d / #_
|
| *D → d / _#
|
| *R → ɡ / #_
|
| *R → {l,ɡ} / _#
|
| 10.1.2.1 Proto-Philippine to Bicol | ə → u / _#
|
| *j → ɡ / #_
|
| h *j → ∅ d / _#
|
| 10.1.2.2 Proto-Philippine to Cebuano | *j → d / #_
|
| h *j → ∅ d / _#
|
| h → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.1.2.3 Proto-Philippine to Hiligaynon | *j → d / #_
|
| *j → d / _#
|
| h → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.1.2.4 Proto-Philippine to Ibanag | r → d / #_ (?)
|
| 10.1.2.5 Proto-Philippine to Ifugao | *j → ɡ / _#
|
| ∅ → j / _iw#
|
| ay → e / _#
|
| 10.1.2.6 Proto-Philippine to Ilocano | R → {ɡ,r} / _#
|
| 10.1.2.7 Proto-Philippine to Proto-Kalamian | e → a / _C[- voice]#
|
| 10.1.2.7.1 Proto-Kalamian to Agutaynen | k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| s → t / _#
|
| ∅ → ʔ / #_
|
| ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| 10.1.2.7.2 Proto-Kalamian to Karamiananen | k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| s → t / _#
|
| ∅ → ʔ / #_
|
| ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| 10.1.2.7.3 Proto-Kalamian to Kalamian Tagbanwa | k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| ∅ → ʔ / #_
|
| ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| 10.1.2.8 Proto-Philippine to Kankanay | *j → ɡ / _#
|
| 10.1.2.9 Proto-Philippine to Tagalog | u → o / _#
|
| *j → d / #_
|
| h *j → ∅ d / _#
|
| uj iw → oj uj / _#
|
| 10.1.2.10 Proto-Philippine to Waray | h → ∅ / _#
|
| r → l / _#
|
| 10.2 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Batak | w → ∅ / i_#
|
| {a,e} → o / _w#
|
| a → e / _j#
|
| q → ∅ / #_ (sometimes; “represented by *h in PB”)
|
| 10.2.1 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Chamic | wa → u / #_
|
| w → ∅ / #_
|
| i iw u → ɔj ? ɔw / _#
|
| C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
|
| l n → r l / #_ (sporadic)
|
| a → aː / _C# (sometimes)
|
| 10.2.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Chamorro | i u → e o / _C{C,#}
|
| k → ∅ / _# (sporadic)
|
| k → h / ! _#
|
| d → ∅ / _#
|
| l → d / _{C,#}
|
| O → O[-voiced] / _{C,#}
|
| ∅ → w / #_V
|
| 10.2.3 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Malayic | j → t / _#
|
| w → ∅ / #_
|
| h → ʔ / _# (sometimes)
|
| {iw,uj} → i / _#
|
| — aj aw → i u / _#
|
| — aj aw → aj aw / _#
|
| C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
|
| 10.2.3.1 Proto-Malayic to (Standard) Malay | V → ə / _(C…)UU#
|
| ə → a / _(C…)#
|
| h → ∅ / ! _# (sporadic)
|
| 10.2.4 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Malayo-Javanic | — aw aj → əw əj / _#
|
| — aw aj → aw aj / _#
|
| 10.2.4.1 Proto-Malayo-Javanic to Javanese | ə → u / _h#
|
| h → ∅ / #_
|
| iw uj → ju i / _#
|
| — əw əj → i u / _#
|
| — aw aj → e ó / _#
|
| 10.2.4.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Madurese | ɭ → lʔ / _#
|
| b → {w,∅} / #_
|
| R → ʔ / _#
|
| {p,t,k} b d ɡ → ʔ p t k / _#
|
| ij uw → uj {uj,ój} / _#
|
| C[+ voice] → C[- voice] / _#
|
| HəS → (h)əNS / #_
|
| 10.2.4.3 Proto-Malayo-Javanic to Sundanese | w → {∅,c} / #_
|
| iw uj → {ju,i} oj / _#
|
| — əw əj → o e / _#
|
| — aw aj → o aj / _#
|
| 10.2.5 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Palauan | ə → ∅ / #_
|
| wa → o / #_ when unstressed
|
| {aw,əw} → o / _#
|
| wə → u / #_
|
| ə → ∅ / _#
|
| ɟ → k / _C#
|
| ŋ → ∅ / C_#
|
| ∅ → ŋ / #_V
|
| 10.2.6 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-North Sarawak | {ʔ,h} → ∅ / #_
|
| h → ∅ / _#
|
| a → ə / _UU(U…)#
|
| ə → ∅ / #_UU(U…)# “(i.e., in word-initial position in prepenultimate syllables)
|
| 10.2.6.1 Proto-North Sarawak to Kiput | ai au → ai̯ au̯ / _#
|
| ə → a / _ʔ#
|
| ai au → ɛː ɔː / _…#
|
| i u → əi̯ əu̯ / _#
|
| ∅ → h / a_#
|
| V[+stress] → Vː / _C# ! V = ə and/or C = h “(applies to diphthongal nuclei as well a[s] monophthongs)”
|
| ʀ → {l,ɾ} / ! _# (the latter is more common)
|
| l → ∅ / ! _# (irregular)
|
| s → ∅ / _#
|
| i u → ɛ ɔ / _C# ! _P (sporadic)
|
| ʀ → ʔ / _# “(in a handful of forms)”
|
| a → i / O[+voiced]…_(C)# “(blocked if there was an intervening nasal, and sometimes if there was an intervening voiceless stop or liquid)”
|
| i u → əi̯ əu̯ / _(ʔ)#
|
| v ɟ → f c / #_
|
| {i,ɛ} {u,ɔ} → iə̯ uə̯ / _{k,ŋ}# “(and also sporadically before final *t and *n and some other consonants)
|
| k ŋ → ʔ ∅ / Və̯_#
|
| ə → {ə,a} / _C# “(free variants)”
|
| (C)V → ∅ / #_C… “(irregular)”
|
| n → l / #_
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| {l,ɾ} → n / _#
|
| dz → d / #_ (though sometimes → {s,ɟ})
|
| b d → p t / _#
|
| 10.2.6.2 Proto-North Sarawak to Proto-Kenyah | d → l / #_ (sporadic)
|
| ʀ →h / V_V(C)#
|
| ʀ → h / _#
|
| s → h / _#
|
| i u → e o / _h#
|
| h → ∅ / _#
|
| S → S[-voice] / _#
|
| l → n / _#
|
| 10.2.6.2.1 Proto-Kenyah to Òma Lóngh | i → e / _k#
|
| i → iə / _ŋ#
|
| p → k / u_#
|
| u → o / _k#
|
| u → o / _ŋ# “(sporadically failed to occur)”
|
| u → ɯ / _(C)# ! _ʔ#
|
| a → o / _# “(not in all forms)”
|
| ʔ → ∅ / _# “(but aʔ → əʔ in some forms)”
|
| k → ʔ / _#
|
| a → ɛ / {t,n}_#
|
| {p,t} n → c̚ ɲ / {i,ɛ}_#
|
| m → ɲ / i_#
|
| i u → e o / _CV[+close-mid](C)# “(iə is treated as close mid for this change)”
|
| i u → ɛ ɔ / _CV[+open-mid](C)#
|
| i u → e o / _Cɯ#
|
| ŋ → ŋ̊ / _#
|
| {p,t} {m,n} → k ŋ / ɯ_#
|
| i u → əj əw / _V(C)#
|
| p → f / #_
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.2.6.3 Proto-Malayic to Minangkabau | h → ∅ / ! _# (some exceptions)
|
| a → o / _(C…)#
|
| — ə → a / _(C…)# (eventually spread to everywhere)
|
| — a u → e uj / _{t,s}#
|
| — a → o / _p#
|
| — u i → uə iə / _{k,ŋ,h,l,r}#
|
| — {p,t,k} s → ʔ h / _#
|
| — {l,r} → ∅ / _# (retained across morpheme boundaries)
|
| 10.3 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Oceanic | aw → o / _#
|
| 10.3.2 Proto-Oceanic to Hiw | C → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.3.3 Proto-Oceanic to Lemerig | V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| 10.3.4 Proto-Oceanic to Mwotlap | b β d → m p n / _{C,#}
|
| 10.3.5.1 Proto-New Caledonia to Caaàc | N → ∅ / _#
|
| V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
|
| ⁿS → N / _#
|
| 10.3.5.4 Proto-New Caledonia to Proto-Northern | ∅ → j / #_a
|
| 10.3.5.4.1 Proto-Northern to Nixumwak-Nêlêmwa | V → ∅ / _#, often
|
| k → c / _#
|
| ⁿS → N / _#
|
| 10.3.5.5 Proto-New Caledonia to Nyelâyu | V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
|
| C → ∅ / _# “sometimes”
|
| t̪ ʈ → r l / _#
|
| ⁿS → N / _#
|
| 10.3.5.6 Proto-New Caledonia to Pwaamei | V → ∅ / _# (sporadic?)
|
| 10.3.5.7 Proto-New Caledonia to Pwapwâ | V → ∅ / _# (sporadic?)
|
| 10.3.5.8 Proto-New Caledonia to Proto-Yunaga | V → ∅ / _#
|
| ⁿS → N / _#
|
| 10.3.5.8.1 Proto-Yunaga to Yunaga 1 | V → Ṽ / _N#
|
| C → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.3.6 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz | C → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.3.6.1 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Äiwoo | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.6.2 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Nagu | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.6.3 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Natügu | t → {t,l} / #_
|
| r → l / _{u,#}
|
| 10.3.7 Proto-Oceanic to Shark Bay | C → ∅ / _#
|
| V[+ high] → ∅ / _# ! {p,z,d(r)}_
|
| v t l r → p dr n w / _#
|
| ɣ s d → ∅ {j dr} / _#
|
| V → e / C_# ! C = j
|
| ∅ → h / #_V (“it isn’t clear if this happens unconditionally”)
|
| 10.3.8 Proto-Oceanic to Tolomako | C → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.3.9 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Utupua | C → ∅ / _# (except for *k?)
|
| 10.3.9.1 Proto-Utupua to Asuboa | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| k → {∅,s} / _#
|
| 10.3.9.2 Proto-Utupua to Nebao | t k → r ∅ / #_ (though *t seems to have occasionally survived?)
|
| 10.3.9.3 Proto-Utupua to Tanibili | t → {t,r,kʷ} / #_ (I’m not kidding. That’s what’s listed as the reflexes.)
|
| k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| k → {∅,j} / _#
|
| 10.3.10 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Vanikoro | {s,*R} → r / _#
|
| 10.3.10.1 Proto-Vanikoro to Buma | p → ∅ / _#
|
| k → ∅ / #_
|
| r → l / ! _#
|
| 10.3.10.2 Proto-Vanikoro to Tanema | p → v / _#
|
| t → {∅,t} / #_
|
| r → l / ! _#
|
| 10.3.10.3 Proto-Vanikoro to Vano | t → l / #_, in nouns
|
| r → l / ! _{u,#}
|
| s → r / _#
|
| 10.3.11.1 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Anejom | C → ∅ / _# ! C = t
|
| t → s / _#
|
| V → ∅ / _# (with very few exceptions)
|
| {r,h} → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.3.11.2 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Proto-Erromango | v → p / #_
|
| 10.3.11.2.1 Proto-Erromango to Sye | b d ɡ → p t k / {#,C}_
|
| b d ɡ → m n ŋ / _#
|
| f → p / #_
|
| a → e / _#
|
| 10.3.11.2.2 Proto-Erromango to Ura | b d ɡ → p t k / _#
|
| u → e / ɣ_# (? this change is a bit unclear)
|
| ɣ → ∅ / _#
|
| 10.3.11.3.3 Proto-Tanna to North Tanna | kʷ → p / _#
|
| ɣ → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.3.11.3.4 Proto-Tanna to Southwest Tanna | ɣ → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.3.11.3.5 Proto-Tanna to Whitesands | ɣ → ∅ / {#,E}_
|
| 10.3.12 Proto-Oceanic to Vera’a | β → f / #_ (usually)
|
| V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| b d → m n / _{C,#}
|
| 10.4.1 Proto-Micronesian to Marshallese | V → ∅ / _#
|
| f → ∅ / #_{C[-low],V[-low]}
|
| f → ɰ / #_aCo
|
| ∅ → ɰ / #_aC[-low]
|
| ∅ → j / #_{aC[+low],V[-back],C[-back]}
|
| ∅ → w / #_{C[+round],V[+round]}
|
| 10.5 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Ongan | b → ∅ / #_{u,i}
|
| q → ∅ / #_V
|
| S → ∅ / _#
|
| {m,ɲ} n → {ɲ,∅} {ŋ,∅} / _# (first change marked “in progress?”)
|
| 10.5.1 Proto-Ongan to Jarawa | n → ŋ / _# (?)
|
| ∅ → a / h#_ (that’s not a typo; this happens across the word boundary)
|
| e → ∅ / _# (?)
|
| p → b / #_ (change seems to be ongoing)
|
| 10.5.2 Proto-Ongan to Onge | n → ŋ / _# (?)
|
| d → r / V_{V,#}
|
| {w,r} → ∅ / {a,e}_#
|
| ∅ → e / C_#
|
| 10.6.2 Proto-Paiwan to Central Paiwan | w → v / _#
|
| 11 Northeast Caucasian | 11.5.2 Proto-Lezgic to Archi | d → r / _#
|
| 11.6 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Nakh | tsː tʃː → ts tʃ / #_
|
| {tsː,tʃː,dz,dʒ} → tː / _#
|
| l → r / _#
|
| r → d / #_
|
| 12 Northwest Caucasian | 12.1 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Abazgi | lʲ → r / #_
|
| 12.2 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Circassian | r l → tː tħ / #_
|
| tsʷ lʲ {qʲʷ,qˤʷ} → sʷ d qʷ / #_ (data not given for non-initial forms)
|
| 12.2.1.4 Adyghe to Temirgoy Adyghe | q qʷ → qː qʷː / ! #_
|
| 12.3 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Ubykh | {r,l} lʲ → d r / #_
|
| 13 Chumashan | 13.6 Proto-Chumash to Ventureño | ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| 14 Elamo-Dravidian | 14.1 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Proto-Dravidian | w → v / #_{i,e}lV
|
| t → ∅ / #_VrC
|
| s → t / #_VLV
|
| s → j / V_{V,#}
|
| s → ∅ / #V_{r̀,l}
|
| l → ɭ / V_#
|
| 14.2 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Achaemanid Elamite | {i,e,u} → ∅ / #_{t,n}a
|
| e → {e,i} / #C_C
|
| c → s / #_{a,u}
|
| l → n / V_#
|
| v → m / #_V (?)
|
| 14.3.1 Standard Tamil to Colloquial Tamil | aː eː iː oː uː → a ɛ i o u / _#
|
| am an {aːm,aːn} → õ æ̃ ã / _#
|
| um → ũ / _#
|
| ∅ → ɨ / _N#
|
| l ɭ → lːʉ ɭːʉ / _#(C)V[-long]
|
| ∅ → ʉ / {l,ɭ}_# if {M,Vː} previously in the lexeme
|
| ɨ ʉ → ∅ / ! _#
|
| j → ∅ / V[-front]_#
|
| j → jːi / E_#
|
| — eCə oCə → Ceː Coː / #_
|
| 15 Eskimo-Aleut | 15.1 Proto-Eskimo-Aleut to Proto-Aleut | p → h / #_
|
| {t,ð} → n / _#
|
| ∅ → t / #_s
|
| z → s / #_
|
| m → w / #_
|
| n → t / #_ (except, maybe, “in exclamations”)
|
| i →∅ / #_{z,dʒ}
|
| ə → ∅ / #_, “under certain conditions not yet discovered”
|
| 15.2 Proto-Eskimo-Aleut to Proto-Eskimo | ɣ ʁ → k q / #_
|
| 15.2.1 Proto-Eskimo to Barrow Iñupiaq | ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
|
| 15.2.2 Proto-Eskimo to Greenlandic Iñupiaq | m n ŋ t {{ɣ,ʁ} → {k,q}} → p t k n ŋ / _#
|
| 15.2.3 Proto-Eskimo to Mackenzie Iñupiaq | ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
|
| 15.2.4 Proto-Eskimo to Wales Iñupiaq | ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
|
| 15.2.5 Proto-Eskimo to Kuskokwim Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
|
| ə → a / _#
|
| i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 15.2.6 Proto-Eskimo to Nunivak Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| ɣ ʁ → x χ / _#
|
| ə → a / _#
|
| i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 15.2.7 Proto-Eskimo to Siberian Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| ∅→ n / #_iN (This one is sort of a guess, given a singular example in the text that isn’t really commented upon)
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 15.2.8 Proto-Eskimo to Unaaliq Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| ɣ ʁ → k q / _#
|
| ə → a / _#
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 16 Extended West Papuan | 16.1.1 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Nafri | p t → f {s,h} / #_
|
| N → ŋ / _#
|
| 16.1.2 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Central Sentani | p b t → f p {s,h} / #_
|
| N → m / _#
|
| 16.1.3 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Eastern Sentani | p t → f {s,h} / #_
|
| N → m / _#
|
| 16.1.4 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Western Sentani | s → t / #_
|
| N → ŋ / _#
|
| 16.1.5 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Tabla | N → ŋ / _#
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Gheg Albanian | s → ɟ / #_
|
| ə → ∅ / _#
|
| 17.1.2 Proto-Indo-European to Tosk Albanian | s → ɟ / #_
|
| 17.2 Proto-Indo-European to Common Anatolian | T h2 → D h3 / _#
|
| r → ∅ / #_ (unclear)
|
| j → ∅ / #_e (not widely attested)
|
| 17.2.1 Common Anatolian to Hittite | D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
|
| d → s / #_{i,j}
|
| 17.2.2 Common Anatolian to Luwian | D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
|
| 17.2.3 Common Anatolian to Lycian | D → T / #_
|
| 17.2.4 Common Anatolian to Lydian | d → t / {#,N}_
|
| {m,n} → ʋ / _# “(that’s a Greek nu, I’m not sure what it’s supposed to represent)”
|
| j u → ð w / #_
|
| 17.2.5 Common Anatolian to Palaic | D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
|
| 17.3.1 Proto-Indo-European to Artsakh Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
|
| N → n / _#, in monosyllables
|
| N̩ → n / _#
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.2 Proto-Indo-European to Erevan Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| ɡʷʱ → ɡʱ / #_
|
| VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
|
| N → n / _#, in monosyllables
|
| N̩ → n / _#
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.3 Proto-Indo-European to Istanbul Armenian | t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_ ! #_
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → b j k / #_
|
| VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
|
| N → n / _#, in monosyllables
|
| N̩ → n / _#
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.4 Proto-Indo-European to Kharpert Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
|
| N → n / _#, in monosyllables
|
| N̩ → n / _#
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.5 Proto-Indo-European to Sebastia Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡʷʱ → {w,v} d z ɡ ʒ / ! _#
|
| VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
|
| N → n / _#, in monosyllables
|
| N̩ → n / _#
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.6 Proto-Indo-European to Southeast Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
|
| N → n / _#, in monosyllables
|
| N̩ → n / _#
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.7 Proto-Indo-European to Southwest Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
|
| VN → V[+nasal] → V → (?) / _#, in polysyllables
|
| N → n / _#, in monosyllables
|
| N̩ → n / _#
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.5 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic | — H → a / C_C ! #_
|
| — H → a / #R_C
|
| 17.5.1 Proto-Indo-European to Old Irish | p → f / {V,#}_
|
| r̩ l̩ → {ra,ar} {la,al} / _{s,CC,V,#} (the results are unpredictable)
|
| ɡʷ → b / #_V ! _u(ː)
|
| ɡʷ → b / #_N
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ m n l r s → f θ x xʷ v ð ɣ M N L R h / V(#)_{R,V} (“We don’t know the exact values of lenited /m n l r/. We can guess that lenited m became a nasalized labial continuant of some sort, but beyond that, we don’t know.”)
|
| m → n / V_#; “[i]t is thought that the vowel needs to be unstressed, but this is not certain”
|
| Vː → V / _N#; “[i]t is thought that the long vowel probably needed to be unstressed- again, this is uncertain”
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ ∅ → b d ɡ ɡʷ mb nd ŋɡ n / n#_”V
|
| oː → uː / _(C…)#
|
| oːi → uː / _#
|
| — e → i / _(C…)#
|
| — o → a / _{(C…),u}#
|
| — {ai,oi} → iː / _#
|
| w → f / #_
|
| w → ∅ / {#,C}C_
|
| w → ∅ / V_{V,#}
|
| — {p,t} → ∅ / #s_r
|
| — {p,t} → ∅ / #s_ “(although it says that occasionally st > t / #_)”
|
| V → ∅ / C_# when unstressed ! C = j
|
| C(…C) → ∅ / _# ! /l r/ and clusters containing them; “[t]his remained a phonologically conditioned rule in OIr”
|
| eː → ia / _{#,Cʲ} when stressed; “ai and oi remain, but are written as <ae ai oe oi> seemingly randomly”
|
| — a → e / _#
|
| V → Vː / _#, when stressed; “[t]his remained as a phonologically conditioned rule in OIr”
|
| V → ∅ / #UU(_)U(U(_)U) / unstressed; this “remained as a phonologically conditioned rule in OIr”; “[t]hat’s a little unclear, so let me try and enumerate: in words of more than three syllables, every other vowel (only the even ones) dropped, if it’s unstressed. In some words, syncope didn’t apply because it would create an unwieldy consonant cluster: so PIE *komaktyom → OIr cumachte, not *cumchte”
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | Vː → V / _#
|
| V → ə / _(C)#, also in proclitics
|
| a o → ei {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| a → {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| V → ɨ / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| V → ∅ / _#
|
| w → ɡw / #_
|
| ɔ → ə / #_sC
|
| l r → ɬ r̥ / #_
|
| ɣ → ə / _#
|
| 17.7.1 Common Germanic to Gothic | — V[- long] → ∅ / _# ! V = u
|
| — V[- long] → ∅ / U_C# ! V = u
|
| — aj → a / U_#
|
| w → u̯ / V[- long]_{#,C}
|
| j → i / C_# “after the loss of a final vowel or syllable”
|
| ij → i / _# “after the loss of a final vowel or syllable”
|
| β ð ɣ → ɸ θ x / V_(s)#
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| z → s / _#, though “[t]his s was dropped when it came to stand after an original s through the loss of a vowel”, though it “remained when protected by a particle”
|
| s → ∅ / V[- long]r_#
|
| 17.7.2 Common Germanic to West Germanic | β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / {#,”V}_
|
| oː → uː / _#
|
| 17.7.2.1.2 Old English to Kentish Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| m → n → ∅ / _# when unstressed
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| 17.7.2.1.3 Old English to Midlands Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| m → n → ∅ / _# when unstressed
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| {e,ɑ,o} → ə → ∅ / _#
|
| 17.7.2.1.4 Midlands Middle English to Early Modern English | mb ŋɡ → m ŋ / _#
|
| a ɑ {ɛ,ɪ,ɤ} → ɑː ɔː ɜː / _ɹ{C,#}
|
| 17.7.2.1.5 Early Modern English to American English | ɪ → i / _# when unstressed
|
| 17.7.2.1.6 Early Modern English to Australian English | ɪ → iː / _# when unstressed
|
| 17.7.2.1.8 Old English to Northern Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| n → ∅ / _# when unstressed (not clear as to whether m → n beforehand in this position or not)
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| {e,ɑ,o} → ə → ∅ / _#, when unstressed (it appears this sound may also have gone to /ɪ/)
|
| 17.7.2.1.9 Early Northern Middle English to Scots | t → ∅ / {p,k}_# (“except in some inflected forms” for *kt)
|
| d → ∅ / l_#
|
| {ɸ,x} → ∅ / _# (seems to be sporadic)
|
| — V → Vː / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#}
|
| — əi → aɪ / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#} (pursuant to the above)
|
| 17.7.2.1.10 Old English to Scots | S[+ voice] → S[- voice] / _#
|
| dʒ → tʃ / _#
|
| θ → f / {V,r}_# (sometimes blocked)
|
| V → Vː / _{r,F[+ voice],V,#}
|
| t → ʔ / _#
|
| 17.7.2.1.11 Scots to Falkirk Scots | pVn tVn kVn → ʔm̩ ʔn̩ ʔŋ̩ / _#
|
| k → ç / V_# ! _C “(sometimes)”; “(except when phonemic)”
|
| ɡ → ʝ / V_# ! _C “(most times)”
|
| p b → ɸ β / {#,V}_ ! _C
|
| n → ∅ / V_V# “in some disyllabic words”
|
| 17.7.2.1.12 Old English to Southern Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| m → n → ∅ / _# when unstressed
|
| f θ s ɣ → v ð z ɡ / #_
|
| {e,ɑ,o} → ə / _#
|
| 17.7.2.1.13 Middle English to Yola | F → F[+ voice] / #_ ! F = ʍ
|
| U → U[+ stress] / #U_ (often)
|
| 17.7.2.1.15 North Frisian Lenition | p t k → b d ɡ → v r ɣ / Vː_{V,#}
|
| 17.7.2.2 West Germanic to Old Low Franconian | h → ∅ / #_C
|
| jan → en / CC_#
|
| 17.7.2.2.1 Old Low Franconian to Middle Dutch | iu → ju / #_ (in some northern dialects)
|
| 17.7.2.2.2 Middle Dutch to Modern Dutch | l → u / o_{t,d}#
|
| 17.7.2.3 Middle High German to Standard German | s → ʃ / #_{l,m,n,w,p,t}
|
| Vː → V[- long] / _%Cə{r,l,n}# (some exceptions)
|
| 17.7.2.4 High German Cosonant Shift and Umlaut | p t k → f z x / _#
|
| p t k → pf ts kx / #_
|
| s → ʃ / #_{p,t}
|
| sk → ʃ / #_
|
| 17.7.2.5 West Germanic to Old Low German | ɡ → k / ŋ_#
|
| ɡ → x / _#
|
| 17.7.3.1 Proto-Norse to Old Norse | i → eː / _ʀ#
|
| b {w,v} d ð ɡ → p f t θ k / _#
|
| j → ∅ / #_
|
| e → i / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C){i,j}
|
| a → ∅ / C(C)_{ʀ,s,t,θ}#
|
| VN → Ṽ / _# ! in #U
|
| a → ∅ / _{ʀ,s,t,θ}#
|
| oː → u / _#
|
| a → ∅ / CC_U#
|
| a(ː) ae → o(ː) ɒø / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C)u
|
| a → ∅ / _U#
|
| {B,E} → ∅ / CC_{ʀ,s,t,θ}# ! B = ɒ
|
| u → o / _m#
|
| u → ∅ / _({ʀ,s,t,θ})#
|
| {B,E} → ∅ / CC_U# ! B = ɒ
|
| V → Vː / _l{P,w,k,#}
|
| {B,E} → ∅ / _U# ! B = ɒ
|
| u → o / _m#
|
| wa we wi → ɒː øː yː / #P_
|
| w → ∅ / #P_Vː
|
| au {ai,ey,ei} æ{y,i} øy Vː → o e æ ø V / #(C)(C)(C)_CC
|
| V[- long] → ∅ / #U_UU
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / #(C)(C)_ʀ
|
| {v,w} → ∅ / #_V[+ round]
|
| lː nː → l n / C_#
|
| ai wi (w)V → eː weː (w)Vː / _h#
|
| i → eː / _#
|
| V{θ,ð} → Vː / #(C)(C)(C)_{l,r}
|
| β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / #_
|
| hw → ∅ / ! #_
|
| w → v / #_
|
| ɡ → ∅ / #_n
|
| eː{Bː,i(ː)} → joː / _C[+ alveolar]#
|
| f θ → v ð / #_
|
| k → h / #_{v,n}
|
| 17.7.3.1.1 Old Norse to Early Icelandic | k → ç / _#
|
| t → ð / V_# “in some verbal endings”
|
| ∅ → u / C_r#
|
| ɡ → ɣ / V_#
|
| {l(ː),rl} → ɬ / v_#
|
| N → N[- voice] / O_#
|
| {l(ː),rl} rː → dɬ r̥ / _#
|
| S[- voice] → Sʰ / #v_V
|
| V → Vː / _(C)#, in monosyllables
|
| nː → tn̥ / V_#
|
| rn → tn̥ / _#
|
| {lː,rl} → tɬ / _#
|
| h → k / #_{v,w}
|
| hl → ɬ / #_
|
| hr hn → r̥ n̥ / #_
|
| n̥ → m̥ / p_#
|
| 17.7.3.1.2 Old Norse to Orkney Norn | d → ∅ / n_# (sometimes)
|
| b d ɡ → p t k / #_
|
| ɡ → k / _# (sporadic)
|
| f → ∅ / _{l,b,v,n,#}
|
| θ → h / #_B
|
| ð → θ / _#
|
| l → ∅ / _# ?
|
| oː → øː / _(C)(C)#
|
| ei → eː / _C(ː,V)# (V can be a syllabic consonant)
|
| V[- long] → ∅ / _#
|
| 17.7.3.1.3 Old Norse to Shetland Norn | b → v / #_ (sporadic?)
|
| tj → tʃ / _#
|
| f → v / #_ (sporadic?)
|
| v → w / #_
|
| n → ∅ / _m#
|
| ð → ∅ / _#
|
| ∅ → h / #_V
|
| 17.7.4 Common Germanic to Vandalic | h → ∅ / #_
|
| w → {ɡw,v} / #_
|
| 17.8.1 Proto-Indo-European to Aeolian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.2 Proto-Indo-European to Attic Greek | s → h / #_
|
| tʃ → t / #_
|
| n → ∅ / _#
|
| 17.8.3 Proto-Indo-European to Boeotian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.4 Proto-Indo-European to Coan Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.5 Proto-Indo-European to Cretan Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.6 Proto-Indo-European to Doric Greek | s → h / #_
|
| tʃ → t / #_
|
| 17.8.7 Proto-Indo-European to Elian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.8 Proto-Indo-European to Ionic Greek | s → h / #_
|
| tʃ → s / #_
|
| 17.8.9 Proto-Indo-European to Laconian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.10 Proto-Indo-European to Mycenaean Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.9 Proto-Indo-European to Hittite | m → ∅ / _#
|
| — r → ∅ / #_
|
| — r → ∅ / _# “sometimes??”
|
| 17.10 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian | ə → ∅ / #_
|
| 17.10.1 Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Indo-Aryan | VH → Vː / _{C,#}
|
| ∅ → a / #_z
|
| k → ∅ / #_t
|
| p → ∅ / #_st
|
| Vm → Ṽ / _(#){s,ɕ}
|
| 17.10.1.1 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Central Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
|
| e o → i u / _#
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _#
|
| 17.10.1.2 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Eastern Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
|
| e o → i u / _#
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _#
|
| 17.10.1.3 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Northwestern Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
|
| e o → i u / _#
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _#
|
| 17.10.1.4 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Western Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| VN VC[-nas] → V[+nas] Vː / _#
|
| e o → i u / _#
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _#
|
| 17.10.1.5 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Vedic Sanskrit | {s,ʂ} → h / _#C[- voice]
|
| {s,ʂ} → r / _#C[+ voice]
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | ɔr ɔl → ra la / #_T “in syllables with long vowels”
|
| ɔr ɔl → rɔ lɔ / #_T
|
| ji → i / #_
|
| O[+voice] → O[-voice] / _# (unless followed by some type of voiced consonant, be it any type of consonant or just an obstruent—this differs by location)
|
| i → ∅ / _# “in the infinite and imperative desinences. . .some verbs have never been affected due to a potential ‘difficult’ cluster that would result, instead they got an analogical final -j extension”
|
| pʲ mʲ fʲ → p m f / _#
|
| ɛ̃ → ɛ / _{#,l,ɫ}
|
| ɔ̃ → ɔ / _# (in some regions or dialects)
|
| ɔ̃ → ɔɰ̃ / _# (in standard registers/pronunciations)
|
| v r̝ → f r̥ / _{C[-voiced],#}
|
| p → ∅ / #_p
|
| w → ∅ / C_#
|
| 17.11.2 Proto-Slavic to Old Russian | je → o / #_
|
| j → ∅ / #_u
|
| ∅ → j / #_a
|
| 17.12.1 Proto-Italic to Proto-Latino-Falsican | ɡʰ → f / #_
|
| {ɸ,θ} → f / #_
|
| l̥ r̥ → ol {or,er} / _#
|
| 17.12.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Latin | {i,o} → e / _#
|
| {i,e} → ∅ / _# (sometimes)
|
| a → e / _C(C)#
|
| e → i / _{s,t}#
|
| o → u / _C(C)# ! {u,w}_
|
| {ai,ei,oi} → ei → iː / _(C)(C)#
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _{m,(n)t,l,r}#
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _#
|
| bʱ → h / #_ (in rustic dialects)
|
| {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʷʱ} → f / #_
|
| t → ∅ / C_#
|
| d → ∅ / Vː_#
|
| s → θ → f / #_r
|
| sː → s / _#
|
| Vː → V / _C(C)# “(irregular: often before -m, -t, -nt, but never before ?s)”
|
| 17.12.1.1.1 Classical Latin vs. Vulgar Latin | m → n / _# “(in certain common monosyllabic words, as well as some common compounds of them)”
|
| m → ∅ / _#
|
| j → ʝ / #_V
|
| 17.12.1.1.2 Latin to Catalan | {m,n,t} → ∅ / _#
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%C_L(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%L_C(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%s_t(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| i → j / ”V_#
|
| u → w / ”ɛ_#
|
| ∅ → e / #_sC
|
| k → j / _s#
|
| ja → je / #_ (irregular)
|
| ∅ → {e,o} / CL_#
|
| ∅ → {e,o} / rː_#
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%_(C)(C)V(C)# (“irregular; e is kept before n”)
|
| — d → w / _V#
|
| iː → ∅ / _#
|
| {i,e(ː),ae} → ∅ / _(C)#
|
| {u(ː),o(ː)} → ∅ / _#
|
| w → ∅ / u_#
|
| j ɡj ts z n → tʃ i w s ∅ / _#
|
| {b,v} → w / V_#
|
| d → t / _#
|
| l → ʎ / #_
|
| k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
|
| ɡ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
|
| j → dʒ → ʒ / #_
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e}
|
| kʷ → k / #_a%”V
|
| kʷ → kw / #_”a
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / #_a
|
| {a,o} → ∅ / #_ (rare)
|
| 17.12.1.1.3 Latin to French | — {m,n} → ∅ / _# in polysyllables
|
| — m → n / _#
|
| è → iɛ / _C#
|
| j tj → dʒ ts / #_
|
| k → j / _s#
|
| ∅ → e / #_sC
|
| ɛ → ɛa / _l{C,#}
|
| l → u / _{C,#}
|
| {lːe,lːo} → u / {e,o}_# “[this is actually an analogical development, but it applies as regularly as a sound law]”
|
| e → ə / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+open]
|
| e → ɛ / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+closed] or _V (?)
|
| a → ə / #{tʃ,dʒ}_(%…)” in U[+open]
|
| t → ∅ / V_#
|
| ɛ → i / _C(C…)i#
|
| V → ∅ / _# “(except in monosyllables or after another vowel)” ! V = a
|
| ai → e / _#
|
| ɲ → in / _{C,#}
|
| O[+voiced] → O[-voiced] / _#
|
| {t,s} → ∅ / _#
|
| k → ∅ / V[+nas]_#
|
| {n,m} → ∅ / C_#
|
| 17.12.1.1.4 Vulgar Latin to Italian | r → ∅ / a_ju#
|
| au → u / #_ (sporadically, e.g. audire → udire)
|
| j → dʒ / #_
|
| l → j / #C_
|
| {t,d,k,m,n,s} → ∅ / _#
|
| r → ∅ / _# (in polysyllables only)
|
| taːte → ”ta / _#
|
| 17.12.1.1.5 Latin to Portuguese | V → ∅ / _L(C)(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| e → iː / ”_%ɪː#
|
| iː → ∅ / {k,s}_#
|
| {i(ː),e(ː),ae} → e / _#
|
| uiː → ui / _#
|
| {u(ː),o(ː)} → o → u / _#
|
| ɛ ɔ → e o / _(”u)#
|
| e → ∅ / el_#
|
| V → a / _{n,r}(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → V[+nas] / #N_ (rare)
|
| {ã,ãe,õe} → ão / _#
|
| e → ∅ / {l,n,r,s,k}_#
|
| e → ∅ / ”{i,e}_#
|
| e → i / _(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
|
| k → ɡ / #_{a,r} (rare)
|
| ɡ → ɡʲ → dʲ → dʒ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
|
| j → dʒ → ʒ / #_
|
| pl → {ʃ,pr} / #_
|
| fl → {ʃ,fr} / #_
|
| kl → kʎ → tʃ → ʃ / #_
|
| ɡ → ∅ / #_l
|
| kʷ → kw / #_”a
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e,o}
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / #_
|
| k → j / _s#
|
| a → ∅ / ”ɔ_#
|
| {e,i} → ∅ / {L,N}_(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| o → ∅ / _(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| 17.12.1.1.6 Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal | — a → a / _# in monosyllables and oxytones (Rouergue, Limousin, Auvergne, Dauphiné)
|
| — e → i / _(C…)i{C(C…)V,#}
|
| — o → y / _i# (in Bordeaux, Auvergne, and some of Languedoc)
|
| — e → i / _(C…)i(C…)#
|
| — e u → e o / _nt#
|
| N → ∅ / _#, in polysyllables
|
| ∅ → i / #_sC
|
| k → ∅ / _s{C,#} (the latter in polysyllables only)
|
| (s)k ɡ → (s)tʃ dʒ / #_a (in the north and northeast)
|
| tʃ → ts → s / #_
|
| j → dʒ / #_ (but not in Béarn)
|
| ∅ → k / #s_l
|
| i → e / #_sC
|
| b {d,dz,dʒ} z ʒ ɡ → p {t,ts,tʃ} s ʃ k / _(s)#
|
| j → i / _(s)#
|
| ð → ∅ / _#
|
| ð → t / _s#
|
| β → u / V_(s)#
|
| β → {∅,f} / C_(s)# (the latter is rare)
|
| n → ∅ / V_# (did not occur in extreme western areas, some northern areas, the southeast, and the east)
|
| n → ∅ / _s# (except for eastern and southeastern dialects)
|
| n → ∅ / r_(s)#?
|
| {p,b} → ∅ / R_s# (unless blocked by analogy)
|
| ts → s / _# (Provence, Limousin, some Languedoc and Gascon)
|
| ð → i / _C ! _s#
|
| l → u / _s# (in many dialects)
|
| j → ∅ / n_# (in many dialects)
|
| rj → rʲ → r / _#
|
| nt nd → {∅,n} ∅ / _# (in some Languedoc and Gascon areas)
|
| nd → n / _# (in western areas and for some speakers of Limousin)
|
| d → t / n_#
|
| {d,l} → ∅ / _#
|
| t → ∅ / _# ! “in the preterit of verbs”, though it tended to drop “in strong preterits”
|
| 17.12.1.1.8 Latin to Romanian | {m,n,s} → ∅ / _# in polysyllables
|
| m s → n i / _#
|
| — {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e / _#
|
| s → i / #(C…)V_#
|
| k → ∅ / _s#
|
| {s,t} → ∅ / _#
|
| e → a / i_(C…){a,e}#
|
| ”elːa → e”a / _#
|
| ja → e / r_#
|
| a → e / C[+palatal]_#
|
| a o → ə u / ”U…_#
|
| e → ə / ”U…P_(C…)V# ! V = i
|
| e → ə / ou_#
|
| u → ∅ / ! {OL,”V}_#
|
| a → a / #(C…)V…C[+palatal]_…”U
|
| a o → ə u / #(C…)V…_…”U
|
| e → i / #(C…)V…_n…”U
|
| e → ə / #(C…)V…{t,d,n}_…”U
|
| e → ə / #{r,P}_…”U
|
| o → u / #C…_…”U
|
| {t,d} → ∅ / n_#
|
| Ci → Cʲ / _# ! R…R_#
|
| 17.12.1.1.9 Latin to Sardinian | h → ∅ / {#,C}_
|
| m → ∅ / _#
|
| v → b / #_
|
| kw ɡw → pː bː / #_ (“[o]nly Logudorese”)
|
| w → ∅ / #k_V
|
| e → ∅ / u_#
|
| {i,j} → ɡ / #_e
|
| r → urː / #_e / Logudorese
|
| r → arː / #_(j)B / Logudorese
|
| 17.12.1.1.10 Vulgar Latin to Spanish | {t,k} → ∅ / _#
|
| i u → e o / _(C)#
|
| Vɾ → ɾV / C_#
|
| e → ∅ / V{d,s,n,l,ɾ}_#
|
| t → ∅ / _#
|
| n → ŋ / _#
|
| 17.12.2 Proto-Italic to Proto-Sibellian | r̥ → er / _#
|
| 17.13 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Tocharian | n̩ → ə → ∅ / C_#
|
| R H → uR ɨ / C_{C,#} when syllabic
|
| R Hn̩ → ɛR ɨn / #_C
|
| h2e → ə / _#
|
| u → wə / #_
|
| (h1)e (h1)eː → jə jɛː / #_
|
| 17.13.1 Proto-Tocharian to Tocharian A | V → ∅ / _#
|
| 17.13.2 Proto-Tocharian to Tocharian B | s → ∅ / n_#
|
| 18 Je-Tupı́-Carib | 18.1.1 Pre-Bakairi to Eastern Bakairi | VNV → ṼṼ / ! _(C)#
|
| 18.2.1 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Proto-Jê | Vm → Ṽ / _#
|
| 18.2.2 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Ofaié-Xavante | m → w / _#
|
| k(ʷ) → ʔ / _#
|
| ŋ → j̃ / #_ (not sure if this nasalizes the following vowel or not)
|
| 18.3.1 Proto-Tuparí to Makuráp | k → ∅ / _#
|
| ð nŋʷ → c β / #_V[-nas]
|
| ɨ → ∅ / ! #_{p,β}e
|
| 18.3.2 Proto-Tuparí to Mekens | ɡʷ → kʷ / #_V[+nas]
|
| ŋʷ → kʷ / #_V[-nas]
|
| ɨ → i / #_{p,βe}
|
| 18.3.3 Proto-Tuparí to Tuparí | ᵐb ŋʷ → p β / #_V[-nas]
|
| n → ∅ / ! #_V[-nas]
|
| ŋ → k / #_V[+nas]
|
| 18.3.4 Proto-Tuparí to Wayoró | bʷ → β / #_V[+nas]
|
| 18.4.1 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Akwára | k b r → {ŋ,∅} {w,m} {n,r,t} / _#
|
| a → {ɨ,o} / _N#
|
| o → a / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| 18.4.2 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Cocama | ∅ → i / j_#, in monosyllables
|
| j → i / _#, in polysyllables
|
| b → ∅ / _#
|
| a → ∅ / _j#
|
| eN → y / _#
|
| o → u(a) / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| 18.4.3 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guajajara | b → ∅ / u_#
|
| a → ə / _N#
|
| o → u / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| 18.4.4 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guaraní | {b,r} → ∅ / _#
|
| V{m,n} → V[+nas] / _#
|
| 18.4.5 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guarayo | {b,k} r → ∅ {r,∅} / _#
|
| {Vm,Vŋ} Vn → V[+nas] {Vr,V[+nas]} / _#
|
| aN eN iN ɨN uN → ã ẽ ı̃ ɨ̃ ũ / _#
|
| 18.4.6 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Kamayurá | b r → p t / _#
|
| 18.4.7 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Parintintín | k → {ŋ,∅} / _#
|
| ∅ → ŋ / {#,V}_w
|
| b r → {b,∅} {r,t} / _#
|
| eN → ı̃ / _#
|
| 18.4.8 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Sirionó | k → ∅ / _#
|
| V{m,n} → V[+nas] / _#
|
| j → {j,i} / _#
|
| w → {ɡ,k} / {#,V}_
|
| {b,r} → ∅ / _#
|
| a → {∅,o,e} / _j#
|
| aN eN iN ɨN uN → ã ẽ ı̃ {ɨ̃,ĩ} õ / _#
|
| 18.4.9 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Classical Tupi | i → ı̃ / ʔ_# (sporadic)
|
| 18.4.9.1.1 Proto-Monde to Gavião | p → v / _#
|
| 18.4.9.1.2 Proto-Monde to Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró | v → w / #_
|
| 18.4.9.1.3 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Cinta Larga | V → Vː / _#
|
| 18.4.9.1.4 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Suruí | ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
|
| b → m / #_
|
| 18.4.9.1.5 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Zoró | ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
|
| 18.4.10 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Urubu | k → {k,∅} / _#
|
| Vn → V[+nas] / _# (sometimes)
|
| j b → {j,i} ∅ / _#
|
| u → o / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| aN iN uN → {aN,ã} ı̃ {uN,ũ} / _#
|
| 20 Khoisan | 20.2.1 Proto-Kx’a to ÇHoan | Vn ŋ → V[+nas] ∅ / _#
|
| 20.2.2 Proto-Kx’a to Northwestern !Xun | a → ∅ / #_m
|
| n → ∅ / _#
|
| 20.2.3 Proto-Kx’a to Southeastern !Xun | a → ∅ / #_m
|
| n → ∅ / _#
|
| 21 Lakes Plain | 21.1 Proto-Lakes Plain to Proto-Far West | ku →∅ / #_
|
| CV → ∅ / _# (possibly only when CV_#, possibly sporadic)
|
| 21.1.1 Proto-Far West to Awera | b → β~m / #_V[-high]
|
| ti → s / #_V
|
| t d → t~ɾ~n n / #_
|
| 21.1.2 Proto-Far West to Saponi | p d → p~f n / #_
|
| ti → s / #_V
|
| b → β~m / #_V[+ low]
|
| 21.1.3 Proto-Far West to Rasawa | ti → s / #_V
|
| b → β~m / #_V[+ low]
|
| 21.2.1 Proto-Tariku to Proto-Central Tariku | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.1.1 Proto-Central Tariku to Edopi | C → ∅ / _#
|
| b k → m~b ∅ / #_
|
| d → d~n~l / #_a
|
| 21.2.1.2 Proto-Central Tariku to Iau | CV → ∅ / _#
|
| b k → m~b ∅ / #_
|
| d → d~l~n / #_a
|
| 21.2.2.1 Proto-East Tariku to Biritai | C → ∅ / _#
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.2 Proto-East Tariku to Doutai | C → ∅ / _#
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.3 Proto-East Tariku to Eritai | b C → ∅ d / _#
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| iC → iC~i / _{C,#} (not sure how this plays in with the change mentioned earlier about extra-high vowels; I must have misread something)
|
| 21.2.2.4 Proto-East Tariku to Kai | C → ∅ / _#
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.5 Proto-East Tariku to Obokuitai | b C → b̚ ɡ̚ / _#
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.6 Proto-East Tariku to Sikaritai | b C → b~∅ {d,ɡ} / _#
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.7 Proto-East Tariku to Waritai | C → ∅ / _#
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.3 Proto-Tariku to Proto-West Tariku | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.3.1 Proto-West Tariku to Deirate | b → m / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.2 Proto-West Tariku to Faia | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.3 Proto-West Tariku to Fayu | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.4 Proto-West Tariku to Kirikiri | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.5 Proto-West Tariku to Sehudate | b → m / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.6 Proto-West Tariku to Tause | b → m / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.7 Proto-West Tariku to Weirate | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 22 Macro-Arawakan | 22.1 Proto-Arawá to Arawá | pʰ → p / #_
|
| ɗ → t / #_
|
| 22.2 Proto-Arawá to Banawá-Jamamadi | ɓ → b / #_
|
| 22.3 Proto-Arawá to Hypothetical Arawán Substrate | e → i / #_
|
| 22.4 Proto-Arawá to Jarawara | ɓ → b / #_
|
| 22.5 Proto-Arawá to Kulína-Dení | ɓ → b / #_
|
| ʔ → ∅ / #_
|
| 22.6 Proto-Arawá to Sorowahá | e → ɨ / _#
|
| ɗ → d / #_
|
| ʔ → ∅ / #_, possibly everywhere?
|
| 22.7 Proto-Arawá to Paumarí | e → {a,i} / #_
|
| pʰ → p / #_
|
| 23 Macro-Chibchan | 23.1.1.1.3 Proto-Chibchan to Kogi | s → ∅ / #_
|
| 24 Macro-Pama-Nyungan | 24.1.1 Proto-Paman to AritinÅitiÉ£ | C → ∅ / #_
|
| i[-long]C → Cj / #_ ! _i
|
| u[-long]C → Cw / #_
|
| a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)
|
| 24.1.2 Proto-Paman to AwÅtim | iC aC uC → Cj Ca Cw / #_ ! before an identical vowel
|
| (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| ∅ → j / #(C)iː(C)_V ! _i
|
| ∅ → w / #(C)uː(C)_V ! _u
|
| ∅ → a / #(C)aː(C)_V ! _a
|
| C → ∅ / #_
|
| 24.1.3 Proto-Paman to LinÅitiÉ£ | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| N → ∅ / #NV_SV
|
| C → ∅ / #_
|
| 24.1.4 Proto-Paman to Mbiywom | C → ∅ / #_
|
| i[-long]C → Cj / #_ ! _i
|
| u[-long]C → Cw / #_
|
| a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)
|
| 24.1.5 Proto-Paman to Mpalican | NVS → VⁿS / #_
|
| C → ∅ / #_
|
| 24.1.6 Proto-Paman to Uraði | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| 24.1.7 Proto-Paman to Yinwum | a → i / #C[+palatal]V[-long]C_
|
| i → e / #(C)aC[-palatal]_
|
| NVS → VⁿS / #_
|
| C → ∅ / #_
|
| ∅ → j / #iː(C)_a
|
| ∅ → w / #uː(C)_a
|
| 25 Macro-Panoan | 25.1.2 Proto-Tacanan to Chama | ɗ → {ʔ,∅} / ! #_
|
| 25.1.3 Proto-Tacanan to Reyesano | ts → tʃ / #_
|
| 25.1.4 Proto-Tacanan to Tacana | k → kʷ / #_i
|
| x → h / #_
|
| 27 Mayan | 27.5 Proto-Mayan to Kaqchikel-Tz’utujil | h → j / _#
|
| ɓ w → ʔ j / VCV_#
|
| 27.10 Proto-Mayan to Yucatecan | t → tʃ / _#
|
| 28 Muskogean | 28.1 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Eastern Muskogean | VC[+ weak] → ∅ / _V#
|
| 28.1.1 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Alabama | kV → ∅ / V_#
|
| 28.1.2 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Creek | V1kV2 → V2ː / #((C)V(C))(C)_#
|
| V1k → ∅ / _#
|
| kʷ → k / #_
|
| 28.1.3 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Hitchiti | V → ∅ / Vk_#
|
| 28.1.4 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Korasati | VkV → ”V / _#
|
| 28.1.5 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Mikasuri | V → ∅ / Vk_#
|
| 28.2 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Western Muskogean | C1[+ weak] C2[+ weak] → ʔ h / V_V#
|
| V → ∅ / V{k,ʔ,h}_#
|
| xʷ → h / %_{o,i}(C)#
|
| a → o / xʷ_#
|
| i → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)V(C)(C)_# (sporadic in the case of other vowels)
|
| 28.2.1 Proto-Western Muskogean to Chickasaw | h → ∅ / _#
|
| 29 Na-Dene | 29.1.1.1.7 Proto-Athabaskan to Deg Hit’an | R F → R[-voiced] F[-voiced] / _# in suffixes
|
| 29.1.1.1.12 Proto-Athabaskan to Holikachuk | ə → ∅ / {R,F}_#
|
| 29.1.1.1.14 Proto-Athabaskan to Lower Koyukon | ə → ∅ / {R,F}_#
|
| 29.1.1.1.19 Proto-Athabaskan to Proto-Southern Athabaskan | VnC → V[+ nas]C / _#, unless C = ʔ
|
| 29.1.1.1.20 Proto-Southern Athabaskan to Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan | {s,z}(ʔ) {ʃ,ʒ}(ʔ) {ɬ,ɮ}(ʔ) → s ʃ ɬ / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.21 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Kiowa Apache | d → ∅ / _#
|
| {xʲ,j}ʔ {x,ɣ}ʔ → ∅ h(ʔ) / _#
|
| Vnʔ VnC → V[+ nas] V[+ nas]C / _#
|
| x ɣ → h ∅ / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.22 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Jicarilla | d → ʔ / _#
|
| xʲ xʔ j ɣʔ → h ʔ ∅ ʔ / E_#
|
| xʲ xʔ j ɡʔ → ih iʔ i iʔ / _#
|
| xʲʔ jʔ → h ʔ / _#
|
| Vnʔ VnC → V[+ nas] V[+ nas]C / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.23 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Lipan | d → ∅ / _#
|
| xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
|
| {xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
|
| Vnʔ VnC → V[+ nas] V[+ nas] / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.25 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to Chiricahua | d → ∅ / _#
|
| xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
|
| {xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
|
| Vnʔ → V[+ nas] / _#
|
| {s,z}(ʔ) {ʃ,ʒ}(ʔ) {ɬ,ɮ}(ʔ) → s ʃ ɬ / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.26 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to Mescalero | xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
|
| {xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
|
| Vnʔ → V[+ nas] / _#
|
| ʔ → ∅ / {s,ʃ,ɬ}_#
|
| z(ʔ) ʒ(ʔ) ɮ(ʔ) → dz dʒ dɮ / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.27 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to Navajo | xʲ(ʔ) j(ʔ) → h ʔ / _#
|
| x ɣ → h ʔ / _#
|
| {s,z}(ʔ) {ʃ,ʒ}(ʔ) {ɬ,ɮ}(ʔ) → s ʃ ɬ / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.28 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to San Carlos | x(ʲ) {j,ɣ} → h ∅ / _#
|
| xʲʔ jʔ → h ʔ / _#
|
| Vnˀ → V[+ nas] / _#
|
| {s,z}(ʔ) {ʃ,ʒ}(ʔ) {ɬ,ɮ}(ʔ) → s ʃ ɬ / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.29 Proto-Athabaskan to Bearlake Slavey-Hare | C → {h,ʔ} / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.31 Proto-Athabaskan to Mountain Slavey-Hare | C → {h,ʔ} / _#
|
| 29.1.1.1.32 Proto-Athabaskan to Slavey Slavey-Hare | C → {h,ʔ} / _#
|
| 30 Niger-Congo | 30.1 Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu to Proto-Bantu | ʋ̃ → l̃ / #_
|
| u ũ → i ı̃ / #R[-labial]_
|
| ʋ̃ ɪ̃ → ũ ı̃ / #N[-labial]_
|
| ʋ̃ → ʋ / #R[-labial]_
|
| ʄ C → c R / #_
|
| ɠʷ → w / #_V[-nas]
|
| ɠʷ → w̃ / #_V[+nas]
|
| V[+nas] → V[-nas] / #S[+voiced]_
|
| ɪ̃ → ɛ̃ / #(C)V_C
|
| ɰ ɰ̃ → j j̃ / #C_
|
| ɪ ɪ̃ → i ı̃ / #(C)V[-high]C_
|
| ʋ̃ → m / #(C)V_
|
| O[+nas -voiced] → O[-nas] / #(C)VC_
|
| 30.1.1.1 Proto-Bantu to Sebirwa | NC → C[-voiced] / #_ (in nouns)
|
| NC → N[+same POA]C / #_ (in verbs)
|
| ∅ → ɡ / #n_V (in verbs)
|
| 30.2 Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu to Proto-Potou-Akanic | C → J[+nas] / #(C)V[+nas]_
|
| ɰɰ̃ →l l̃ / #(C)V_
|
| C → J / #(C)V_
|
| V[+nas](ʋ̃,l̃) → V[-nas](m,n) / #J[+voiced]_
|
| 30.2.1 Proto-Potou-Akanic to Proto-Akanic | V[+high +ATR](C(V[+high -ATR])) → #(C)V[-high +ATR](CV[+high +ATR]) / #J[+dorsal -voiced]_
|
| ɛ → ia / #(C)_
|
| R[-voiced] R[+voiced] W → Z[-voiced] O[-voiced] F / #_
|
| ɰ ɰ̃ w̃ → h h̃ h̃ʷ / #_
|
| h → ɲı̃ / #_ã
|
| h → w / #_
|
| t → c / #_V[-nas]
|
| 30.2.1.1 Proto-Akanic to Akan | l l̃ → j j̃ / #_
|
| V → V[-round] / #C[+dorsal]_C[-labial]
|
| jV[+nas] → jV[-nas] / #_
|
| f → j / #_V[-nas]
|
| f → j̃ / #_V[+nas]
|
| {p,ʋ̃} c k͜p → f s p / #_
|
| n → ŋ / #(C)V_
|
| V → ∅ / #(C)VC[-coronal]_
|
| ʋ l → w ɹ / #(C)V_
|
| V[+high] → V[+nas] / #(C)_N
|
| i → ∅ / #C_a
|
| ı̃ → ∅ / #_ã
|
| 31 Nyulnyulan | 31.1 Proto-Nyulnyulan to Bardi | {w,j} → ∅ / #_
|
| ɲ → ∅ / _#
|
| V0 → ∅ / V(C)(C)V0(C)(C)_# (with some exceptions)
|
| 32 Oto-Manguean | 32.1.1 Proto-Chatino to Papabuco Chatino | kʷ → ɾ / #_ek
|
| nʲ → l / #_i
|
| 32.1.2 Proto-Chatino to Tataltepec Chatino | t → tʃ / #_iç
|
| ɛ → ı̃ / S_#
|
| ɛ → i / n_#
|
| ɛ → e / _ʔ#, in monosyllables
|
| 32.1.3 Proto-Chatino to Yaitepec Chatino | ts → tʃ / #_{a,õ}ʔ
|
| ts → ʃ / #_ẽ
|
| s → tʃ / #_a
|
| lʲ → l / #_ in U[-long -stress]
|
| ẽ → ı̃ / {t,h}_#
|
| ẽ → ı̃ / _ʔ#
|
| ẽ → ı̃ / ʔ_# “in one case”
|
| 32.2 Proto-Oto-Manguean to Tlapanec | ʔ → ∅ / #_
|
| h → CVʔV / _# (or possibly in just any final syllable?)
|
| 33 Penutian | 33.1.1 Proto-Utian to Proto-Costanoan (Ohlone) | tʃ → ʂ / _#
|
| ɨ → e / CC_#
|
| 33.1.1.1 Proto-Costanoan to Chochenyo | kʷ → k / #_
|
| 33.1.1.3 Proto-Costanoan to Mutsun | kʷ → k / #_
|
| 33.1.1.4 Proto-Costanoan to Rumsen | kʷ → k / #_
|
| 33.2.1 Proto-Wintuan to Nomlaki | r → j / _#
|
| 33.3.1.1 General Yokuts to Buena Vista Yokuts | t tʰ tʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ / #_ “(in some words, conditioning factors unclear)”
|
| V[+ high] → a / V[+ high]C_(C)#
|
| tʰ → s / #_u
|
| 33.3.2.1 Proto-Nim-Yokuts to Proto-Tule-Kaweah | t tʰ tʼ → tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ / #_ “(in some words, conditioning factors unclear)”
|
| 33.3.3 Proto-Yokuts to Palewyami | t tʰ tʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ / #_ “(in some words; conditioning factors unclear)”
|
| {u,a} → e / _CVC#, when stressed (short only)
|
| i → e / _CVC#, when stressed (! _H, short only)
|
| 34 Quechumaran | 34.2 Proto-Quechumaran to Bolivia | {k,q} → h / _{C,#}
|
| χ → qʰ / #_
|
| 34.3 Proto-Quechumaran to Cuzco | h → ∅ / #q_{i,u}
|
| ph → p / #_VA
|
| ph → p / #_aC[+sibilant]
|
| kh → k / #_a
|
| kh → k / #_ “in a word with two back vowels”
|
| χ → qʰ / #_
|
| 34.5 Proto-Quechumaran to Putamayo | h → ∅ / #_
|
| 34.6 Proto-Quechumaran to Quito | tʼ → tʰ / #_i
|
| k → ɡ / _#
|
| ts → dz / ! #_
|
| 34.7 Proto-Quechumaran to Riobamba | tʼ → tʰ / #_i
|
| k → h / _#
|
| kh → kʰ / #_{i,u}
|
| 34.8 Proto-Quechumaran to Santiago | {k,q} → h / _{C,#}
|
| h → ∅ / #_
|
| 34.9 Proto-Quechumaran to Tena | h → ∅ / #_
|
| χ → k / #_
|
| w → ∅ / #_i
|
| 35 Salishan | 35.1.1 Proto-Central Salish to Comox | s → ∅ / #_C
|
| s → ∅ / #_{wa,wi}
|
| V3ʔ → V3(ː)ʔ / _#
|
| 35.1.2 Proto-Central Salish to Chilliwack Halkomelem | V3ʔ → V3(ː) / _#
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
|
| 35.1.7 Proto-Central Salish to Nooksack | s → ʃ / #_{xʲ,w{i,a},qʷa}
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V3R_{C,#}
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V1R_#
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
|
| 35.1.8 Proto-Central Salish to Lummi Northern Straits | ʔ → {∅,ʔ} / V3R_{C,#}
|
| 35.1.12 Proto-Central Salish to Pentlatch | ʔ → ∅ / V3R_{V,#}
|
| 35.1.13 Proto-Central Salish to Sechelt | ʔ → ∅ / V1_#
|
| 35.1.15 Proto-Central Salish to Twana | Rʔ → ʔR / V3_#
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V1R_#
|
| 35.2.1 Proto-Interior Salish to Columbian and Okanagan Nasal-to-Vowel Shifts | nˀ → aʔ / _# (all other Interior Salishan languages have /eʔ/ in this position)
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.1.1 Late Middle Chinese to Old Mandarin | ŋ → ∅ / #_ ! #_o(w)
|
| ∅ → w / C_o# ! C = {K,C[+pharyngeal]}
|
| 36.1.1.1 Old Mandarin to Modern Pekingese | ŋ → ∅ / #_
|
| o → e / _#
|
| î → e / _C# ! C = r
|
| 36.3.2.1.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Chos Kia | e → i / _#
|
| 36.3.2.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to Japhug | u o → ɯ u / _#
|
| aŋ → o / _#
|
| ɔk → ɤɣ / _#
|
| ɔ → ɤ / _{t,r}# (possibly also _s# dialectally)
|
| a → o / _m#
|
| b → w / #{z,r}_
|
| ŋ → m / #_kʰ
|
| 36.3.2.2.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Kham To | e → i / _{s,#}
|
| 36.3.2.2.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to lCog Rtse | l → ∅ / #ç_
|
| 36.3.2.2.4 Proto-rGyalrongic to Suo Mo | ɡ → ∅ / #_r
|
| C[+ sibilant] → s / _#
|
| nj → ɲ / #(r)_
|
| j → dz / #_
|
| 36.3.2.2.5 Proto-rGyalrongic to Trung | i → əi / _#
|
| 36.3.2.2.6 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tsa Ku Nao | ∅ → dz / #_j
|
| a(t) → ɛ / _#
|
| 36.3.2.2.7 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tzu Ta | j → s / #_
|
| 36.3.3.1 Old Tibetan to Amdo dialects | {d,ɡ,s,l,r} → {h,r} / #_
|
| ʃ → x / #_ (some dialects, never when following preinitials)
|
| i → ə / _#
|
| sr → ʂ / #_
|
| s → either i or a diphthong ending in i? / _#
|
| d → l / _# (some dialects)
|
| t → l / _# (further development in bLa-brang)
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.1.1 Proto-Iroquoian to Cherokee | {Vh,Vʔ} → Vː / _#
|
| ∅ → Vː[+high rising tone] / C_# (“usually one of [/aː iː ʌ̃ː/ with this tone], the conditions are unclear”)
|
| s → ∅ / #h_V
|
| 37.1.2 Proto-Iroquoian to Proto-Northern Iroquoian | ∅ → i(ː) / #_(C)(C)CVC(C)(C)#
|
| h → ∅ / #_s
|
| 37.1.2.1 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Cayuga | ”V(C)(C)CaCV → V(C)”(C)CaCV / _#
|
| R → ∅ / ʔ_#
|
| C → ∅ / {s,k}_#
|
| Ch → ∅ / _s#
|
| h → ∅ / Vː_#
|
| 37.1.2.2 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Huron | k → i / #_n
|
| k → x / {#,R,ʔ,V}_{V,ʔ,R,#}
|
| j → ∅ / #_V
|
| j → ∅ / V_{V,#}
|
| w → ∅ / #_
|
| w → ∅ / _{r,#}
|
| h → ∅ / #_w
|
| 37.1.2.2.1 Huron to Wyandot | x → e / #_r
|
| j → ʒ / {#,ʔ,V}_V
|
| k → ∅ / _#
|
| 37.1.2.3 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Onondaga | ”V(ː)(C)(C)Vː → V[-long](C)”(C)CV[-long] / _#
|
| ”V(C)(C)CaCV → V(C)”(C)CaCV / _#
|
| h → ∅ / _{k,t,ts,s}#
|
| 37.1.2.4 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Proto-Mohawk-Oneida | h → ∅ / _#
|
| h → ∅ / #_w
|
| Vː → V / _(C)(C)(C)#
|
| 37.1.2.4.1 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Mohawk | V0 → ∅ / ”VC(C)(C)V0ʔ_C(C)(C)#
|
| ∅ → e / {#,V}s_n
|
| ∅ → e / {#,V}s_w
|
| — s → z / {#,V}_{V,R} ! R = j
|
| 37.1.2.4.2 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Oneida | — ∅ → e / C_{n,l}V(H)#
|
| — ∅ → o / C_wV(H)#
|
| — ∅ → i / C_jV(H)#
|
| — Vː[+falling tone]C(C)V(H) → V̊ː[+falling tone]C̊(C̊)V̊(H̊) / _#
|
| — CVː[+falling tone] → C̊V̊ː[+falling tone] / _#
|
| — CVʔ → C̊V̊ʔ̊ / _#
|
| — V[-long] → V̊ / R_#
|
| — OV[-long] → O̊V̊ / _#
|
| — jV → ∅ / Ci_(H)#
|
| — ʔ → h / _C#
|
| — R → R̊ / _#
|
| s → z / {#,V}_{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.5 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Seneca | h → ∅ / _{tk,nh,sC,C#}
|
| h → ∅ / #_w
|
| n → t / ʔ_#
|
| C → ∅ / s_#
|
| C[-glottal] → ∅ / _s#
|
| t → ∅ / k_#
|
| 37.1.2.6 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Tuscarora | ˀt → n / {#,C}_{V,w,j}
|
| h → ∅ / #_w
|
| h → ∅ / Vː_#
|
| n r w j → n̥ r̥ w̥ j̊ / _{#,O}
|
| 37.2.1 Proto-Siouan to Catawba | ∅ → ʔ / C_# (only sometimes?) (*)
|
| 37.2.2 Proto-Siouan to Dakota | mn → mV0nV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.2.1 Dakota to Santee Dakota | kr → hd / #_
|
| 37.2.3 Proto-Siouan to Mandan | mn → mV0nV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.4 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago | k → ɡ / V[+nas]_ ! _#
|
| m → ∅ / _n ! _n#
|
| 37.2.4.1 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Čiwere | k → ∅ / #t_
|
| 37.2.4.2 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Winnebago | V → ∅ / _#
|
| tk → {tʃk,tʃɡ} / #_
|
| 37.2.5.2 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Hidatsa | kr → kV0rV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.6.1 Proto-Dhegiha to Kansa | w → b / #_
|
| r L(ʲ) → d j / #_ (*)
|
| L → bl / #_e (*)
|
| 37.2.6.2 Proto-Dhegiha to Omaha-Ponca | w → m / #_
|
| mn → mV0nV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.6.3 Proto-Dhegiha to Osage | w → b / #_
|
| m → ∅ / #_n
|
| 37.2.6.4 Proto-Dhegiha to Quapaw | L → d / #_
|
| Lʲ → j / #_õ (*)
|
| Lʲ → t / #_ã (*)
|
| m → ∅ / #_n (in morphemes) (*)
|
| 37.2.7.1 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Biloxi | w → ∅ / #_ (sporadic)
|
| m → w / #_
|
| m → ∅ / #_n
|
| k → ∅ / #t_
|
| 37.2.7.2 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Ofo | w → ∅ / #_ (sporadic)
|
| m → w / #_
|
| m → ∅ / #_n
|
| k → ∅ / #t_
|
| 37.2.7.3 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Tutelo | mn → mV0nV0 / #_ (in morphemes)
|
| 40 Totozoquean | 40.2 Proto-Totozoquean to Proto-Totonacan | h → ∅ / ! #_
|
| 41 Trans-New Guinea | 41.1 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Apalɨ | t k ŋ → {l,t} {h,k} n / #_
|
| {p,t} → ∅ / _#
|
| 41.2 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Asmat | p → f / #_ (?)
|
| t → s / #_i
|
| k s → ∅ {t,s} / #_
|
| p t nj → {t,r} {r,s,t} s / _#
|
| 41.3 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Binandere | t → j / #_i
|
| ŋ ᵑɡ → ∅ ɡ / #_
|
| nj → s / #_ (?)
|
| 41.4 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kaeti | {p,ᵐb} ŋɡ → b ɡ / #_
|
| 41.5.1.3 Proto-Gorokan to South Fore | m n → mb nd / #_
|
| 41.5.1.5 Proto-Gorokan to Gimi | ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| 41.5.1.6 Proto-Gorokan to Hua | {N,r} → ʔ / _{#,C}
|
| 41.5.1.7 Proto-Gorokan to Kamano | r → ʔ / _#
|
| 41.5.1.8 Proto-Gorokan to Move | N → ʔ / _{#,C}
|
| 41.5.1.9 Proto-Gorokan to Siane | C → ∅ / _#
|
| 41.5.2.1 Proto-Kainantu to Auyana | N → ∅ / _#
|
| r → ʔ / _{N,#}
|
| 41.5.2.2 Proto-Kainantu to Awa | N → ∅ / _{p,t,#}
|
| 41.6 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kalam | t → {t,∅} / _#
|
| 41.7 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kâte | k ᵐb ⁿd → {k,h} b {s,t} / #_
|
| p k → t ʔ / _#
|
| 41.8 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kiwai | t k ᵐb → {s,t} {ɡ,∅} {b,p} / #_
|
| s → {s,t} / #_ (?)
|
| 41.9 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Selepet | ᵐb ⁿd s → b {s,t} {t,s} / #_
|
| t → t / _# (?)
|
| ŋ → {m,ŋ} / _#
|
| 41.10 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Telefol | {p,ᵐb} → f / #_
|
| s → s / #_ (?)
|
| 41.11 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Middle Wahgi | n ŋ → m n / #_
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1 Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic | ŋ → k / _#, in latives
|
| ŋ → n / _# else
|
| m → n / _{t,tsʲ,#}
|
| 42.1.1 Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic | V → Vː / _#
|
| i → ∅ / Aj_#
|
| j → ∅ / C_i{C,#}
|
| tʃ tsʲ → ʃ sʲ / #_
|
| nʲ → ni / #(C)i_V
|
| 42.1.1.1 Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish | j w → i U / V_{C,#}
|
| βi → U / _#
|
| f → ʋ / #_
|
| ʋ → ∅ / #_{o,u,y}
|
| ∅ → ʋ / #_{yː,øː,oː}
|
| {ks,nts} nt → s t / _#
|
| 42.1.1.1.1 Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish | Vh → hV / {j,v,n,r,l}_# (also some double-metathesis triggered by the condition of being m_ ?)
|
| {k,x} → ˟ / _#
|
| VU → Vː / _#
|
| e → ø / #(C…)_y
|
| i → y / #(C…)l_y
|
| i → y / #(C…)_væ
|
| 42.1.1.1.2 Standard Finnish to Modern Standard Finnish | n → ∅ / _#
|
| 42.1.2 Proto-Finnic to Livonian | h → ∅ / {#,C}_
|
| ɑ → ə / VC(C)ɑC(C)_# when unstressed
|
| LV → VL / {#,V,O}_
|
| p t(ʲ) s(ʲ) k → b d(ʲ) z(ʲ) ɡ / ! #_ or adjacent to C[-voice]
|
| ə → ∅ / _#
|
| o → oː / _{RC#,i}
|
| w → ʋ / #_o
|
| 43 Uto-Aztecan | 43.2 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Hopi | i → j / h_ ! _#
|
| w → l / {#,V[+low]}_V[+low]
|
| 43.3 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Luiseño | k → q / #_V[+low]
|
| ʔ → ∅ / #_
|
| 43.4 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Nahuatl | p → ∅ / {#,Vs}_
|
| m → n / _#
|
| l → n / #_
|
| 43.6 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Tohono O’odham | p → w / {#,Vs}_
|
| h → ʔ / #_
|
| l → ɲ / #_ “(in doubt; initial *l occurs in too few cognates to be sure. Apparently PUA initial *l was rare and is of questionable certainty whether it existed at all.)”
|
| i → ∅ / ts_#
|
| l → i / {p,m,k(ʷ),w}_# “in all dialects, and varies by dialect after other consonants”
|
| 44 Vasconic | 44.1 Proto-Vasconic to Aquitanian | ś → {s(ː),ʃ} / _#
|
| s → ʃ / i_#
|
| r[+ fortis] → ɾ / _#
|
| ɡ → k / #_ (sometimes?)
|
| 44.2 Proto-Basque to Basque | Sʰ → F → h (→ ∅) / #_
|
| S → S[+ voiced] / #_
|
| Vn → Ṽ / _# (seems to have been reverted in most dialects, except for Souletin)
|
| d → l / #_ (except verbs)
|
| {ɾ,r} → ∅ / #_
|
| r → ɾ / _#
|
| b → ∅ / #_B (a few exceptions, mostly before _u)
|
| ∅ → a / #_{ra,ro} (sporadic)
|
| ∅ → e / #_r
|
| ∅ → e / #_{s̺,s̻}C
|
| o → u / _n{C,#} (Souletin; some raising occurred elsewhere)
|
| u i → o e / _r{C,#}
|
| ∅ → V / Vk_# (Zeberio Biscayan)
|
| e → ∅ / #_ (Navarrese, rare)
|
| e → j / #_V (at least a few times?)
|
| e → ∅ / #Ur_
|
| a → ∅ / V_# (Guipuscoan; happens because of reanalysis of the definite article)
|
| V → ∅ / _#, in trisyllables
|
| i → ∅ / _#, in disyllables
|
| u {o,e} → ∅ a / _#, in disyllables (eastern dialects)
|
| eɪ → e / #_
|
| eð (→ e ?) → j / #_V
|
| e → j / #_a
|
| e → ∅ / #_e
|
| C[+ sibilant] → C[+ affricate] / _#
|
| s̻ → s̺ / _{C,#} (sometimes)
|
| its̺ → tʃ / _# (Biscayan)
|
| oa ea → u(e) i(e) / _#
|
| s̺ → tʃ / #_ (Guipuscoan)
|
| 45 Yuman-Cochimı́ | 45.1.1 Proto-Pai to Chapai | kʷ → k / _#
|
| 45.1.2 Proto-Pai to Paipai | kʷ xʷ → k x / _#
|
| 45.1.3 Proto-Pai to Tipai | kʷ xʷ → q χ / _# (the paper calls these “back velars”)
|
| 46 Vowel Shifts | 46.5 Old English-to-Scots Vowel Shifts | — V → Vː / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#}
|
| — əi → aɪ / _{r,F[+voiced],$,#} (pursuant to the above)
|
| 46.11 Middle Chinese to Cantonese Vowel Shift (“The Inner-Outer Flip”) | V → Vː / _#
|
| 46.15 Proto-Japanese to Old Japanese Vowel Shift | e o → je wo / _#
|
| 46.19 Southern [United States] Shift (English) | aɪ → aː / _#
|