| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.1.1 Proto-Omotic to North Omotic | e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C
|
| e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C$
|
| 6.1.1.1 North Omotic to Bench | x2 → k / #_
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| 6.1.1.3 North Omotic to Kafa | x2 → k / #_
|
| {s3,ʒ} → ʃ / #_
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_Vb
|
| 6.1.1.4 North Omotic to Maale | x2 → h / #_
|
| tsʼ → tʃʼ / #_
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| 6.1.1.5 North Omotic to Shekkacho | z → j / {#,V}_
|
| ʒ → ʃ / #_
|
| s3 → ʃ / #_
|
| h1 → {h,∅} / #_
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_Vb
|
| 6.1.1.6 North Omotic to Wolaytta | l → n / #_VN
|
| dʼ → tʼ / #_
|
| 6.1.1.7 North Omotic to Yemsa | x2 → k / #_
|
| ts → s / #_
|
| h1 → {h,∅} / #_
|
| h2 → w / #_
|
| l → n / #_VC
|
| 6.1.1.8 North Omotic to Zayse-Zergulla | x2 → h / #_
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| 6.1.2.2 South Omotic to Dime | kʼ → ɡʼ / #_
|
| 6.2.1 Proto-Erythrean to Proto-Cushitic | b → m / #_Vn
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_Vx$
|
| 6.2.1.1.3 Proto-Agaw to Kemantney | kʼ → χʷ / #_
|
| 6.2.1.1.4 Proto-Agaw to Xamtanga | kʼ → {χʷ,qʷ} / #_
|
| 6.2.2 Proto-Erythrean to Proto-North Erythrean | in → ŋ / #_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.1 Proto-North Erythrean to Proto-Boreafrasian | h → ħ / #_Vs
|
| ŋ → ∅ / #_CV
|
| 6.2.2.1.2 Proto-Boreafrasian to Egypto-Berber | ɬ → s / #_VC
|
| f → p / #_V{Z,C[-voice],r}
|
| k(w) → tʃ / #_Vt
|
| ɡ(w) → dʒ / #_Vd
|
| q → i / #_V{Z,C[+dental]}
|
| ʕ → i / #_VR
|
| tlʼ → dl / #_Vħr
|
| r → l / #_V(V)O[+labial]
|
| l → j / #_iC ?
|
| 6.2.2.1.3 Ancient Egyptian to Coptic | n → l / #_Vb
|
| n → l / #_(V){s,ʃ,h}V{m,b}#
|
| n → l / #_V{m,b}{s,ʃ,h}
|
| n → l / #_Vk
|
| r → l / #(C)_c(C)# ?
|
| 6.2.2.1.4 Proto-Boreafrasian to Proto-Semitic | ɣ → ɡ / #_VCH
|
| ɣ(w) → ɡ / #_Vx
|
| 6.2.2.1.10 Classical Arabic to Hassāniyya Arabic | — j w → i u / #_CV
|
| — j w → iː uː / #_CC
|
| 6.2.2.1.14 Classical Arabic to Moroccan Arabic | Cˤ → C / {#,V}_V
|
| 7 Algonquian | 7.1 Proto-Algonquian to Kennebec River Abenaki | l → n / #_
|
| a → ∅ / #_OO
|
| θ → n / #_
|
| 7.2 Proto-Algonquian to St. Francis Abenaki | a → ∅ / #_OO
|
| θ → n / #_
|
| nj → i / #_
|
| 7.3 Proto-Algonquian to Proto-Arapaho-Atsina | e → i / #_
|
| W → n / {#,V}_
|
| s → n / #_
|
| r → n / {#,V}_
|
| 7.3.1 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Arapaho | ∅ → h / #_V
|
| 7.3.2 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Gros Ventre | ∅ → ʔ / #_V
|
| 7.4 Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot | {ʃ,tʃ} → s / #_
|
| e → i / {#,k}_
|
| ∅ → i / #_jC
|
| {me,ne} → ∅ / #_O “(followed by truncation of following x)”
|
| {we,wiː} → o / #_
|
| 7.11 Proto-Algonquian to Munsee Delaware | ə[+weak] → ∅ / #_C
|
| 7.12 Proto-Algonquian to Menominee | we → o / #_
|
| e → i / #(C)_ ! _H
|
| 7.13 Proto-Algonquian to Miami-Illinois | {θ,l} → r → n / #_ (and possibly in other places as well)
|
| mV[-long] → ∅ / #_{ʰC,s,ʃ} (allophonic, “optional”)
|
| 7.14 Proto-Algonquian to Mi’kmaq | k → χ / _(w)a(ː) ! #_
|
| 7.17 Proto-Algonquian to Shawnee | e → i / #(C)_ “(but remains e in a few cases?)”
|
| wa → o / #_
|
| ∅ → h / #_V
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.1 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Japonic | b → p / #_
|
| tʃ dʒ → t d / #_
|
| n → m / #_
|
| ŋ → m / #_{æ,ø,y}
|
| l(ʲ) → n / #_
|
| 8.2 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Korean | b → p / #_
|
| ɡ → k / #_
|
| {nʲ,ŋ} → n / #_
|
| l(ʲ) → n / #_
|
| 8.3 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Mongolic | pʰ → {h,j} / #_
|
| pʰ → b / #_U[+high pitch]
|
| tʃ → dʒ / #_i
|
| k → ɡ / ! #_
|
| ʃ → tʃ / #_a
|
| nʲ → dʒ / #_
|
| ŋ → ɡ / #_u
|
| ŋ → n / #_{a,o,e}
|
| ŋ → {∅,j} / #_
|
| l → {n,l} / #_
|
| lʲ → dʒ / #_i
|
| lʲ → d / #_
|
| 8.4 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Tungusic | t → dʒ / #_{æ,ø,y}
|
| t → d / #_
|
| k → {k,ɡ} / #_
|
| kʰ → x / #_
|
| 8.5 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Turkic | e → ja / #_C{e,i}
|
| {pʰ,ŋ} → {∅,j} / #_
|
| tʰ → d / #_(V){lʲ,r(ʲ)}
|
| {t,tʃ} → d / #_
|
| ʃ → tʃ / #_a
|
| m n(ʲ) → b j / #_
|
| {ʒ,dʒ} → j / #_ (marked as to Pre-Proto-Turkic)
|
| {d,n} → j / #_ (?) (marked as to Pre-Proto-Turkic)
|
| {N,l,r,ʃ,z} → ∅ / #_
|
| p → ɸ → h / #_
|
| {d,n}ʲ sʲ → j ʃ / #_
|
| 8.5.1 Proto-Turkic to Proto-Kypchak | d → t / #_ (“kind of”, something about evidence from borrowings)
|
| 8.5.1.1 Proto-Kypchak to Kazakh | j → dʒ / #_ (did not occur in Qara Nogay)
|
| 8.5.1.2 Proto-Kypchak to Kyrgyz | j → dʒ / #_
|
| ∅ → U / #_{l,r} (not sure what 〈U〉 represents here; maybe just some sort of back vowel?)
|
| 8.5.2 Proto-Turkic to Sakha | s → ∅ / #_
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.1.1 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan | j → {d,t} / #_
|
| w → ∅ / #_
|
| HəS → (h)ə(N)S / #_
|
| 10.1.2 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Philippine | {*D,*Z,z} → d / #_
|
| *R → ɡ / #_
|
| 10.1.2.1 Proto-Philippine to Bicol | *j → ɡ / #_
|
| 10.1.2.2 Proto-Philippine to Cebuano | *j → d / #_
|
| 10.1.2.3 Proto-Philippine to Hiligaynon | *j → d / #_
|
| 10.1.2.4 Proto-Philippine to Ibanag | r → d / #_ (?)
|
| 10.1.2.7.1 Proto-Kalamian to Agutaynen | ∅ → ʔ / #_
|
| 10.1.2.7.2 Proto-Kalamian to Karamiananen | ∅ → ʔ / #_
|
| 10.1.2.7.3 Proto-Kalamian to Kalamian Tagbanwa | ∅ → ʔ / #_
|
| 10.1.2.9 Proto-Philippine to Tagalog | *j → d / #_
|
| 10.2 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Batak | q → ∅ / #_ (sometimes; “represented by *h in PB”)
|
| 10.2.1 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Chamic | wa → u / #_
|
| w → ∅ / #_
|
| l n → r l / #_ (sporadic)
|
| 10.2.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Chamorro | ∅ → w / #_V
|
| 10.2.3 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Malayic | w → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.2.4.1 Proto-Malayo-Javanic to Javanese | h → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.2.4.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Madurese | b → {w,∅} / #_
|
| HəS → (h)əNS / #_
|
| 10.2.4.3 Proto-Malayo-Javanic to Sundanese | w → {∅,c} / #_
|
| 10.2.5 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Palauan | ə → ∅ / #_
|
| wa → o / #_ when unstressed
|
| wə → u / #_
|
| ∅ → ŋ / #_V
|
| 10.2.6 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-North Sarawak | {ʔ,h} → ∅ / #_
|
| ə → ∅ / #_UU(U…)# “(i.e., in word-initial position in prepenultimate syllables)
|
| 10.2.6.1 Proto-North Sarawak to Kiput | v ɟ → f c / #_
|
| (C)V → ∅ / #_C… “(irregular)”
|
| n → l / #_
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| dz → d / #_ (though sometimes → {s,ɟ})
|
| 10.2.6.2 Proto-North Sarawak to Proto-Kenyah | d → l / #_ (sporadic)
|
| 10.2.6.2.1 Proto-Kenyah to Òma Lóngh | p → f / #_
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.3.3 Proto-Oceanic to Lemerig | V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| 10.3.5.4 Proto-New Caledonia to Proto-Northern | ∅ → j / #_a
|
| 10.3.6.1 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Äiwoo | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.6.2 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Nagu | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.6.3 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Natügu | t → {t,l} / #_
|
| 10.3.7 Proto-Oceanic to Shark Bay | ∅ → h / #_V (“it isn’t clear if this happens unconditionally”)
|
| 10.3.9.1 Proto-Utupua to Asuboa | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.9.2 Proto-Utupua to Nebao | t k → r ∅ / #_ (though *t seems to have occasionally survived?)
|
| 10.3.9.3 Proto-Utupua to Tanibili | t → {t,r,kʷ} / #_ (I’m not kidding. That’s what’s listed as the reflexes.)
|
| k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.10.1 Proto-Vanikoro to Buma | k → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.3.10.2 Proto-Vanikoro to Tanema | t → {∅,t} / #_
|
| 10.3.10.3 Proto-Vanikoro to Vano | t → l / #_, in nouns
|
| 10.3.11.2 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Proto-Erromango | v → p / #_
|
| 10.3.11.2.1 Proto-Erromango to Sye | b d ɡ → p t k / {#,C}_
|
| f → p / #_
|
| 10.3.11.3.3 Proto-Tanna to North Tanna | ɣ → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.3.11.3.4 Proto-Tanna to Southwest Tanna | ɣ → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.3.11.3.5 Proto-Tanna to Whitesands | ɣ → ∅ / {#,E}_
|
| 10.3.12 Proto-Oceanic to Vera’a | β → f / #_ (usually)
|
| V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| 10.4.1 Proto-Micronesian to Marshallese | f → ∅ / #_{C[-low],V[-low]}
|
| f → ɰ / #_aCo
|
| ∅ → ɰ / #_aC[-low]
|
| ∅ → j / #_{aC[+low],V[-back],C[-back]}
|
| ∅ → w / #_{C[+round],V[+round]}
|
| 10.5 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Ongan | b → ∅ / #_{u,i}
|
| q → ∅ / #_V
|
| 10.5.1 Proto-Ongan to Jarawa | ∅ → a / h#_ (that’s not a typo; this happens across the word boundary)
|
| p → b / #_ (change seems to be ongoing)
|
| 11 Northeast Caucasian | 11.6 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Nakh | tsː tʃː → ts tʃ / #_
|
| r → d / #_
|
| 12 Northwest Caucasian | 12.1 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Abazgi | lʲ → r / #_
|
| 12.2 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Circassian | r l → tː tħ / #_
|
| tsʷ lʲ {qʲʷ,qˤʷ} → sʷ d qʷ / #_ (data not given for non-initial forms)
|
| 12.2.1.4 Adyghe to Temirgoy Adyghe | q qʷ → qː qʷː / ! #_
|
| 12.3 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Ubykh | {r,l} lʲ → d r / #_
|
| 14 Elamo-Dravidian | 14.1 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Proto-Dravidian | w → v / #_{i,e}lV
|
| t → ∅ / #_VrC
|
| s → t / #_VLV
|
| 14.2 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Achaemanid Elamite | {i,e,u} → ∅ / #_{t,n}a
|
| c → s / #_{a,u}
|
| v → m / #_V (?)
|
| 14.3.1 Standard Tamil to Colloquial Tamil | — eCə oCə → Ceː Coː / #_
|
| 15 Eskimo-Aleut | 15.1 Proto-Eskimo-Aleut to Proto-Aleut | p → h / #_
|
| ∅ → t / #_s
|
| z → s / #_
|
| m → w / #_
|
| n → t / #_ (except, maybe, “in exclamations”)
|
| i →∅ / #_{z,dʒ}
|
| ə → ∅ / #_, “under certain conditions not yet discovered”
|
| 15.2 Proto-Eskimo-Aleut to Proto-Eskimo | ɣ ʁ → k q / #_
|
| 15.2.5 Proto-Eskimo to Kuskokwim Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 15.2.6 Proto-Eskimo to Nunivak Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 15.2.7 Proto-Eskimo to Siberian Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| ∅→ n / #_iN (This one is sort of a guess, given a singular example in the text that isn’t really commented upon)
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 15.2.8 Proto-Eskimo to Unaaliq Yup’ik | S → ∅ / #_F
|
| ə → ∅ / #_
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| iv → j / #_u
|
| 16 Extended West Papuan | 16.1.1 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Nafri | p t → f {s,h} / #_
|
| 16.1.2 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Central Sentani | p b t → f p {s,h} / #_
|
| 16.1.3 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Eastern Sentani | p t → f {s,h} / #_
|
| 16.1.4 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Western Sentani | s → t / #_
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Gheg Albanian | s → ɟ / #_
|
| 17.1.2 Proto-Indo-European to Tosk Albanian | s → ɟ / #_
|
| 17.2 Proto-Indo-European to Common Anatolian | r → ∅ / #_ (unclear)
|
| j → ∅ / #_e (not widely attested)
|
| 17.2.1 Common Anatolian to Hittite | D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
|
| d → s / #_{i,j}
|
| 17.2.2 Common Anatolian to Luwian | D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
|
| 17.2.3 Common Anatolian to Lycian | D → T / #_
|
| 17.2.4 Common Anatolian to Lydian | d → t / {#,N}_
|
| j u → ð w / #_
|
| 17.2.5 Common Anatolian to Palaic | D T → T T[+lenis] / #_
|
| 17.3.1 Proto-Indo-European to Artsakh Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| 17.3.2 Proto-Indo-European to Erevan Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| ɡʷʱ → ɡʱ / #_
|
| 17.3.3 Proto-Indo-European to Istanbul Armenian | t → tʰ / {aw,ow}_ ! #_
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → b j k / #_
|
| 17.3.4 Proto-Indo-European to Kharpert Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| 17.3.5 Proto-Indo-European to Sebastia Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| 17.3.6 Proto-Indo-European to Southeast Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
|
| bʱ dʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʱ ɡ(ʷ)ʱ → p t j k / #_
|
| 17.3.7 Proto-Indo-European to Southwest Armenian | p t → h tʰ / #_ (?)
|
| ɡʷʱ → dʒ / #_{e,i}
|
| bʱ ɡ́ʱ ɡʷʱ → b j ɡ / #_
|
| 17.5 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic | — H → a / C_C ! #_
|
| 17.5.1 Proto-Indo-European to Old Irish | p → f / {V,#}_
|
| ɡʷ → b / #_V ! _u(ː)
|
| ɡʷ → b / #_N
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ m n l r s → f θ x xʷ v ð ɣ M N L R h / V(#)_{R,V} (“We don’t know the exact values of lenited /m n l r/. We can guess that lenited m became a nasalized labial continuant of some sort, but beyond that, we don’t know.”)
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ ∅ → b d ɡ ɡʷ mb nd ŋɡ n / n#_”V
|
| w → f / #_
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | w → ɡw / #_
|
| ɔ → ə / #_sC
|
| l r → ɬ r̥ / #_
|
| 17.7.1 Common Germanic to Gothic | ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| 17.7.2 Common Germanic to West Germanic | β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / {#,”V}_
|
| 17.7.2.1.2 Old English to Kentish Middle English | ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| 17.7.2.1.3 Old English to Midlands Middle English | ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| 17.7.2.1.8 Old English to Northern Middle English | ɣ → ɡ / #_
|
| 17.7.2.1.11 Scots to Falkirk Scots | p b → ɸ β / {#,V}_ ! _C
|
| 17.7.2.1.12 Old English to Southern Middle English | f θ s ɣ → v ð z ɡ / #_
|
| 17.7.2.1.13 Middle English to Yola | F → F[+ voice] / #_ ! F = ʍ
|
| 17.7.2.2 West Germanic to Old Low Franconian | h → ∅ / #_C
|
| 17.7.2.2.1 Old Low Franconian to Middle Dutch | iu → ju / #_ (in some northern dialects)
|
| 17.7.2.3 Middle High German to Standard German | s → ʃ / #_{l,m,n,w,p,t}
|
| 17.7.2.4 High German Cosonant Shift and Umlaut | p t k → pf ts kx / #_
|
| s → ʃ / #_{p,t}
|
| sk → ʃ / #_
|
| 17.7.3.1 Proto-Norse to Old Norse | j → ∅ / #_
|
| e → i / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C){i,j}
|
| a(ː) ae → o(ː) ɒø / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C)u
|
| au {ai,ey,ei} æ{y,i} øy Vː → o e æ ø V / #(C)(C)(C)_CC
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / #(C)(C)_ʀ
|
| {v,w} → ∅ / #_V[+ round]
|
| V{θ,ð} → Vː / #(C)(C)(C)_{l,r}
|
| β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / #_
|
| hw → ∅ / ! #_
|
| w → v / #_
|
| ɡ → ∅ / #_n
|
| f θ → v ð / #_
|
| k → h / #_{v,n}
|
| 17.7.3.1.1 Old Norse to Early Icelandic | h → k / #_{v,w}
|
| hl → ɬ / #_
|
| hr hn → r̥ n̥ / #_
|
| 17.7.3.1.2 Old Norse to Orkney Norn | b d ɡ → p t k / #_
|
| θ → h / #_B
|
| 17.7.3.1.3 Old Norse to Shetland Norn | b → v / #_ (sporadic?)
|
| f → v / #_ (sporadic?)
|
| v → w / #_
|
| ∅ → h / #_V
|
| 17.7.4 Common Germanic to Vandalic | h → ∅ / #_
|
| w → {ɡw,v} / #_
|
| 17.8.1 Proto-Indo-European to Aeolian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.2 Proto-Indo-European to Attic Greek | s → h / #_
|
| tʃ → t / #_
|
| 17.8.3 Proto-Indo-European to Boeotian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.4 Proto-Indo-European to Coan Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.5 Proto-Indo-European to Cretan Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.6 Proto-Indo-European to Doric Greek | s → h / #_
|
| tʃ → t / #_
|
| 17.8.7 Proto-Indo-European to Elian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.8 Proto-Indo-European to Ionic Greek | s → h / #_
|
| tʃ → s / #_
|
| 17.8.9 Proto-Indo-European to Laconian Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.8.10 Proto-Indo-European to Mycenaean Greek | s → h / #_
|
| 17.9 Proto-Indo-European to Hittite | — r → ∅ / #_
|
| 17.10 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian | ə → ∅ / #_
|
| 17.10.1 Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Indo-Aryan | ∅ → a / #_z
|
| k → ∅ / #_t
|
| p → ∅ / #_st
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | ɔr ɔl → ra la / #_T “in syllables with long vowels”
|
| ɔr ɔl → rɔ lɔ / #_T
|
| ji → i / #_
|
| p → ∅ / #_p
|
| 17.11.2 Proto-Slavic to Old Russian | je → o / #_
|
| j → ∅ / #_u
|
| ∅ → j / #_a
|
| 17.12.1 Proto-Italic to Proto-Latino-Falsican | ɡʰ → f / #_
|
| {ɸ,θ} → f / #_
|
| 17.12.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Latin | bʱ → h / #_ (in rustic dialects)
|
| {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʷʱ} → f / #_
|
| s → θ → f / #_r
|
| 17.12.1.1.1 Classical Latin vs. Vulgar Latin | j → ʝ / #_V
|
| 17.12.1.1.2 Latin to Catalan | ∅ → e / #_sC
|
| ja → je / #_ (irregular)
|
| l → ʎ / #_
|
| k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
|
| ɡ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
|
| j → dʒ → ʒ / #_
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e}
|
| kʷ → k / #_a%”V
|
| kʷ → kw / #_”a
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / #_a
|
| {a,o} → ∅ / #_ (rare)
|
| 17.12.1.1.3 Latin to French | j tj → dʒ ts / #_
|
| ∅ → e / #_sC
|
| e → ə / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+open]
|
| e → ɛ / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+closed] or _V (?)
|
| 17.12.1.1.4 Vulgar Latin to Italian | au → u / #_ (sporadically, e.g. audire → udire)
|
| j → dʒ / #_
|
| 17.12.1.1.5 Latin to Portuguese | k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
|
| k → ɡ / #_{a,r} (rare)
|
| ɡ → ɡʲ → dʲ → dʒ → ʒ / #_{i,e}
|
| j → dʒ → ʒ / #_
|
| pl → {ʃ,pr} / #_
|
| fl → {ʃ,fr} / #_
|
| kl → kʎ → tʃ → ʃ / #_
|
| ɡ → ∅ / #_l
|
| kʷ → kw / #_”a
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e,o}
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / #_
|
| 17.12.1.1.6 Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal | ∅ → i / #_sC
|
| (s)k ɡ → (s)tʃ dʒ / #_a (in the north and northeast)
|
| tʃ → ts → s / #_
|
| j → dʒ / #_ (but not in Béarn)
|
| i → e / #_sC
|
| 17.12.1.1.9 Latin to Sardinian | h → ∅ / {#,C}_
|
| v → b / #_
|
| kw ɡw → pː bː / #_ (“[o]nly Logudorese”)
|
| {i,j} → ɡ / #_e
|
| r → urː / #_e / Logudorese
|
| r → arː / #_(j)B / Logudorese
|
| 17.13 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Tocharian | R Hn̩ → ɛR ɨn / #_C
|
| u → wə / #_
|
| (h1)e (h1)eː → jə jɛː / #_
|
| 18 Je-Tupı́-Carib | 18.2.2 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Ofaié-Xavante | ŋ → j̃ / #_ (not sure if this nasalizes the following vowel or not)
|
| 18.3.1 Proto-Tuparí to Makuráp | ð nŋʷ → c β / #_V[-nas]
|
| ɨ → ∅ / ! #_{p,β}e
|
| 18.3.2 Proto-Tuparí to Mekens | ɡʷ → kʷ / #_V[+nas]
|
| ŋʷ → kʷ / #_V[-nas]
|
| ɨ → i / #_{p,βe}
|
| 18.3.3 Proto-Tuparí to Tuparí | ᵐb ŋʷ → p β / #_V[-nas]
|
| n → ∅ / ! #_V[-nas]
|
| ŋ → k / #_V[+nas]
|
| 18.3.4 Proto-Tuparí to Wayoró | bʷ → β / #_V[+nas]
|
| 18.4.7 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Parintintín | ∅ → ŋ / {#,V}_w
|
| 18.4.8 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Sirionó | w → {ɡ,k} / {#,V}_
|
| 18.4.9.1.2 Proto-Monde to Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró | v → w / #_
|
| 18.4.9.1.4 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Suruí | ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
|
| b → m / #_
|
| 18.4.9.1.5 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Zoró | ᵑɡ → ɡ / #_ (possibly all prenasalized consonants?)
|
| 20 Khoisan | 20.2.2 Proto-Kx’a to Northwestern !Xun | a → ∅ / #_m
|
| 20.2.3 Proto-Kx’a to Southeastern !Xun | a → ∅ / #_m
|
| 21 Lakes Plain | 21.1 Proto-Lakes Plain to Proto-Far West | ku →∅ / #_
|
| 21.1.1 Proto-Far West to Awera | b → β~m / #_V[-high]
|
| ti → s / #_V
|
| t d → t~ɾ~n n / #_
|
| 21.1.2 Proto-Far West to Saponi | p d → p~f n / #_
|
| ti → s / #_V
|
| b → β~m / #_V[+ low]
|
| 21.1.3 Proto-Far West to Rasawa | ti → s / #_V
|
| b → β~m / #_V[+ low]
|
| 21.2.1.1 Proto-Central Tariku to Edopi | b k → m~b ∅ / #_
|
| d → d~n~l / #_a
|
| 21.2.1.2 Proto-Central Tariku to Iau | b k → m~b ∅ / #_
|
| d → d~l~n / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.1 Proto-West Tariku to Deirate | b → m / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.2 Proto-West Tariku to Faia | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.3 Proto-West Tariku to Fayu | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.4 Proto-West Tariku to Kirikiri | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.5 Proto-West Tariku to Sehudate | b → m / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.6 Proto-West Tariku to Tause | b → m / #_a
|
| 21.2.3.7 Proto-West Tariku to Weirate | b d → m n / #_a
|
| 22 Macro-Arawakan | 22.1 Proto-Arawá to Arawá | pʰ → p / #_
|
| ɗ → t / #_
|
| 22.2 Proto-Arawá to Banawá-Jamamadi | ɓ → b / #_
|
| 22.3 Proto-Arawá to Hypothetical Arawán Substrate | e → i / #_
|
| 22.4 Proto-Arawá to Jarawara | ɓ → b / #_
|
| 22.5 Proto-Arawá to Kulína-Dení | ɓ → b / #_
|
| ʔ → ∅ / #_
|
| 22.6 Proto-Arawá to Sorowahá | ɗ → d / #_
|
| ʔ → ∅ / #_, possibly everywhere?
|
| 22.7 Proto-Arawá to Paumarí | e → {a,i} / #_
|
| pʰ → p / #_
|
| 23 Macro-Chibchan | 23.1.1.1.3 Proto-Chibchan to Kogi | s → ∅ / #_
|
| 24 Macro-Pama-Nyungan | 24.1.1 Proto-Paman to AritinÅitiÉ£ | C → ∅ / #_
|
| i[-long]C → Cj / #_ ! _i
|
| u[-long]C → Cw / #_
|
| a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)
|
| 24.1.2 Proto-Paman to AwÅtim | iC aC uC → Cj Ca Cw / #_ ! before an identical vowel
|
| C → ∅ / #_
|
| 24.1.3 Proto-Paman to LinÅitiÉ£ | C → ∅ / #_
|
| 24.1.4 Proto-Paman to Mbiywom | C → ∅ / #_
|
| i[-long]C → Cj / #_ ! _i
|
| u[-long]C → Cw / #_
|
| a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)
|
| 24.1.5 Proto-Paman to Mpalican | NVS → VⁿS / #_
|
| C → ∅ / #_
|
| 24.1.7 Proto-Paman to Yinwum | NVS → VⁿS / #_
|
| C → ∅ / #_
|
| 25 Macro-Panoan | 25.1.2 Proto-Tacanan to Chama | ɗ → {ʔ,∅} / ! #_
|
| 25.1.3 Proto-Tacanan to Reyesano | ts → tʃ / #_
|
| 25.1.4 Proto-Tacanan to Tacana | k → kʷ / #_i
|
| x → h / #_
|
| 28 Muskogean | 28.1.2 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Creek | V1kV2 → V2ː / #((C)V(C))(C)_#
|
| kʷ → k / #_
|
| 30 Niger-Congo | 30.1 Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu to Proto-Bantu | ʋ̃ → l̃ / #_
|
| ʄ C → c R / #_
|
| ɠʷ → w / #_V[-nas]
|
| ɠʷ → w̃ / #_V[+nas]
|
| 30.1.1.1 Proto-Bantu to Sebirwa | NC → C[-voiced] / #_ (in nouns)
|
| NC → N[+same POA]C / #_ (in verbs)
|
| 30.2.1 Proto-Potou-Akanic to Proto-Akanic | ɛ → ia / #(C)_
|
| R[-voiced] R[+voiced] W → Z[-voiced] O[-voiced] F / #_
|
| ɰ ɰ̃ w̃ → h h̃ h̃ʷ / #_
|
| h → ɲı̃ / #_ã
|
| h → w / #_
|
| t → c / #_V[-nas]
|
| 30.2.1.1 Proto-Akanic to Akan | l l̃ → j j̃ / #_
|
| jV[+nas] → jV[-nas] / #_
|
| f → j / #_V[-nas]
|
| f → j̃ / #_V[+nas]
|
| {p,ʋ̃} c k͜p → f s p / #_
|
| V[+high] → V[+nas] / #(C)_N
|
| ı̃ → ∅ / #_ã
|
| 31 Nyulnyulan | 31.1 Proto-Nyulnyulan to Bardi | {w,j} → ∅ / #_
|
| 32 Oto-Manguean | 32.1.1 Proto-Chatino to Papabuco Chatino | kʷ → ɾ / #_ek
|
| nʲ → l / #_i
|
| 32.1.2 Proto-Chatino to Tataltepec Chatino | t → tʃ / #_iç
|
| 32.1.3 Proto-Chatino to Yaitepec Chatino | ts → tʃ / #_{a,õ}ʔ
|
| ts → ʃ / #_ẽ
|
| s → tʃ / #_a
|
| lʲ → l / #_ in U[-long -stress]
|
| 32.2 Proto-Oto-Manguean to Tlapanec | ʔ → ∅ / #_
|
| 33 Penutian | 33.1.1.1 Proto-Costanoan to Chochenyo | kʷ → k / #_
|
| 33.1.1.3 Proto-Costanoan to Mutsun | kʷ → k / #_
|
| 33.1.1.4 Proto-Costanoan to Rumsen | kʷ → k / #_
|
| 33.3.1.1 General Yokuts to Buena Vista Yokuts | t tʰ tʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ / #_ “(in some words, conditioning factors unclear)”
|
| tʰ → s / #_u
|
| 33.3.2.1 Proto-Nim-Yokuts to Proto-Tule-Kaweah | t tʰ tʼ → tʃ tʃʰ tʃʼ / #_ “(in some words, conditioning factors unclear)”
|
| 33.3.3 Proto-Yokuts to Palewyami | t tʰ tʼ → ts tsʰ tsʼ / #_ “(in some words; conditioning factors unclear)”
|
| 34 Quechumaran | 34.2 Proto-Quechumaran to Bolivia | χ → qʰ / #_
|
| 34.3 Proto-Quechumaran to Cuzco | ph → p / #_VA
|
| ph → p / #_aC[+sibilant]
|
| kh → k / #_a
|
| kh → k / #_ “in a word with two back vowels”
|
| χ → qʰ / #_
|
| 34.5 Proto-Quechumaran to Putamayo | h → ∅ / #_
|
| 34.6 Proto-Quechumaran to Quito | tʼ → tʰ / #_i
|
| ts → dz / ! #_
|
| 34.7 Proto-Quechumaran to Riobamba | tʼ → tʰ / #_i
|
| kh → kʰ / #_{i,u}
|
| 34.8 Proto-Quechumaran to Santiago | h → ∅ / #_
|
| 34.9 Proto-Quechumaran to Tena | h → ∅ / #_
|
| χ → k / #_
|
| w → ∅ / #_i
|
| 35 Salishan | 35.1.1 Proto-Central Salish to Comox | s → ∅ / #_C
|
| s → ∅ / #_{wa,wi}
|
| 35.1.7 Proto-Central Salish to Nooksack | s → ʃ / #_{xʲ,w{i,a},qʷa}
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.1.1 Late Middle Chinese to Old Mandarin | ŋ → ∅ / #_ ! #_o(w)
|
| 36.1.1.1 Old Mandarin to Modern Pekingese | ŋ → ∅ / #_
|
| 36.3.2.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to Japhug | ŋ → m / #_kʰ
|
| 36.3.2.2.4 Proto-rGyalrongic to Suo Mo | ɡ → ∅ / #_r
|
| nj → ɲ / #(r)_
|
| j → dz / #_
|
| 36.3.2.2.6 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tsa Ku Nao | ∅ → dz / #_j
|
| 36.3.2.2.7 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tzu Ta | j → s / #_
|
| 36.3.3.1 Old Tibetan to Amdo dialects | {d,ɡ,s,l,r} → {h,r} / #_
|
| ʃ → x / #_ (some dialects, never when following preinitials)
|
| sr → ʂ / #_
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.1.2 Proto-Iroquoian to Proto-Northern Iroquoian | ∅ → i(ː) / #_(C)(C)CVC(C)(C)#
|
| h → ∅ / #_s
|
| 37.1.2.2 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Huron | k → i / #_n
|
| k → x / {#,R,ʔ,V}_{V,ʔ,R,#}
|
| j → ∅ / #_V
|
| w → ∅ / #_
|
| h → ∅ / #_w
|
| 37.1.2.2.1 Huron to Wyandot | x → e / #_r
|
| j → ʒ / {#,ʔ,V}_V
|
| 37.1.2.4 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Proto-Mohawk-Oneida | h → ∅ / #_w
|
| 37.1.2.4.1 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Mohawk | — s → z / {#,V}_{V,R} ! R = j
|
| 37.1.2.4.2 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Oneida | s → z / {#,V}_{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.5 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Seneca | h → ∅ / #_w
|
| 37.1.2.6 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Tuscarora | ˀt → n / {#,C}_{V,w,j}
|
| h → ∅ / #_w
|
| 37.2.2 Proto-Siouan to Dakota | mn → mV0nV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.2.1 Dakota to Santee Dakota | kr → hd / #_
|
| 37.2.3 Proto-Siouan to Mandan | mn → mV0nV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.4.2 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Winnebago | tk → {tʃk,tʃɡ} / #_
|
| 37.2.5.2 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Hidatsa | kr → kV0rV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.6.1 Proto-Dhegiha to Kansa | w → b / #_
|
| r L(ʲ) → d j / #_ (*)
|
| L → bl / #_e (*)
|
| 37.2.6.2 Proto-Dhegiha to Omaha-Ponca | w → m / #_
|
| mn → mV0nV0 / #_
|
| 37.2.6.3 Proto-Dhegiha to Osage | w → b / #_
|
| m → ∅ / #_n
|
| 37.2.6.4 Proto-Dhegiha to Quapaw | L → d / #_
|
| Lʲ → j / #_õ (*)
|
| Lʲ → t / #_ã (*)
|
| m → ∅ / #_n (in morphemes) (*)
|
| 37.2.7.1 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Biloxi | w → ∅ / #_ (sporadic)
|
| m → w / #_
|
| m → ∅ / #_n
|
| 37.2.7.2 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Ofo | w → ∅ / #_ (sporadic)
|
| m → w / #_
|
| m → ∅ / #_n
|
| 37.2.7.3 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Tutelo | mn → mV0nV0 / #_ (in morphemes)
|
| 40 Totozoquean | 40.2 Proto-Totozoquean to Proto-Totonacan | h → ∅ / ! #_
|
| 41 Trans-New Guinea | 41.1 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Apalɨ | t k ŋ → {l,t} {h,k} n / #_
|
| 41.2 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Asmat | p → f / #_ (?)
|
| t → s / #_i
|
| k s → ∅ {t,s} / #_
|
| 41.3 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Binandere | t → j / #_i
|
| ŋ ᵑɡ → ∅ ɡ / #_
|
| nj → s / #_ (?)
|
| 41.4 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kaeti | {p,ᵐb} ŋɡ → b ɡ / #_
|
| 41.5.1.3 Proto-Gorokan to South Fore | m n → mb nd / #_
|
| 41.7 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kâte | k ᵐb ⁿd → {k,h} b {s,t} / #_
|
| 41.8 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kiwai | t k ᵐb → {s,t} {ɡ,∅} {b,p} / #_
|
| s → {s,t} / #_ (?)
|
| 41.9 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Selepet | ᵐb ⁿd s → b {s,t} {t,s} / #_
|
| 41.10 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Telefol | {p,ᵐb} → f / #_
|
| s → s / #_ (?)
|
| 41.11 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Middle Wahgi | n ŋ → m n / #_
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1.1 Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic | tʃ tsʲ → ʃ sʲ / #_
|
| 42.1.1.1 Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish | f → ʋ / #_
|
| ʋ → ∅ / #_{o,u,y}
|
| ∅ → ʋ / #_{yː,øː,oː}
|
| 42.1.1.1.1 Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish | e → ø / #(C…)_y
|
| i → y / #(C…)_væ
|
| 42.1.2 Proto-Finnic to Livonian | h → ∅ / {#,C}_
|
| LV → VL / {#,V,O}_
|
| p t(ʲ) s(ʲ) k → b d(ʲ) z(ʲ) ɡ / ! #_ or adjacent to C[-voice]
|
| w → ʋ / #_o
|
| 43 Uto-Aztecan | 43.2 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Hopi | w → l / {#,V[+low]}_V[+low]
|
| 43.3 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Luiseño | k → q / #_V[+low]
|
| ʔ → ∅ / #_
|
| 43.4 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Nahuatl | p → ∅ / {#,Vs}_
|
| l → n / #_
|
| 43.6 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Tohono O’odham | p → w / {#,Vs}_
|
| h → ʔ / #_
|
| l → ɲ / #_ “(in doubt; initial *l occurs in too few cognates to be sure. Apparently PUA initial *l was rare and is of questionable certainty whether it existed at all.)”
|
| 44 Vasconic | 44.1 Proto-Vasconic to Aquitanian | ɡ → k / #_ (sometimes?)
|
| 44.2 Proto-Basque to Basque | Sʰ → F → h (→ ∅) / #_
|
| S → S[+ voiced] / #_
|
| d → l / #_ (except verbs)
|
| {ɾ,r} → ∅ / #_
|
| b → ∅ / #_B (a few exceptions, mostly before _u)
|
| ∅ → a / #_{ra,ro} (sporadic)
|
| ∅ → e / #_r
|
| ∅ → e / #_{s̺,s̻}C
|
| e → ∅ / #_ (Navarrese, rare)
|
| e → j / #_V (at least a few times?)
|
| eɪ → e / #_
|
| eð (→ e ?) → j / #_V
|
| e → j / #_a
|
| e → ∅ / #_e
|
| s̺ → tʃ / #_ (Guipuscoan)
|