| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic to Proto-Omotic | w → ∅ / #C_V, except _i(ː)
|
| 6.1.1 Proto-Omotic to North Omotic | N → ∅ / V_{C[+sibilant],p}
|
| 6.1.1.1 North Omotic to Bench | x2 s3 → ∅ ʃ / V_V
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| 6.1.1.2 North Omotic to Dizin | z → d / Vj_
|
| tsʼ → ʒ / V_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| 6.1.1.3 North Omotic to Kafa | p → f / V_
|
| s → ʃ / !V_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| {ts,ʒ} → tʃ / V_
|
| s3 → ʃ / V_V
|
| s3 → s / V_$#
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_Vb
|
| 6.1.1.4 North Omotic to Maale | b → w / V_V
|
| p → f / V_
|
| z → d / V_
|
| z → ts / Vj_
|
| x2 → ɡ / V_V
|
| ts tsː → s ts / V_
|
| tsʼ → s / V_
|
| 6.1.1.5 North Omotic to Shekkacho | b → w / V_V
|
| pʼ → p / V_
|
| z → j / {#,V}_
|
| z → dʒː / Vj_
|
| s → ʃ / ! V_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| ts → ʃ / V_
|
| s3 → s / V_$#
|
| s2 → {s,tʃː} / V_
|
| l → d / #_VC
|
| l → n / #_Vb
|
| 6.1.1.6 North Omotic to Wolaytta | b → w / V_V
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| x2 s3 → k ʃ / V_$#
|
| s → s3 / V_(V)
|
| s2 → s / V_
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| 6.1.1.7 North Omotic to Yemsa | b → w / V_V
|
| z → d / V_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| l → n / #_VC
|
| r → {r,lː} / V_
|
| 6.1.1.8 North Omotic to Zayse-Zergulla | b → w / V_V
|
| z → ts / Vj_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| x3 → ɡ / V_#
|
| tsː → ts / V_
|
| s2 → tʃ / V_
|
| l → n / #_VN
|
| 6.1.2.1 South Omotic to Aari | z → {d,z} / V_
|
| 6.1.2.2 South Omotic to Dime | z → {d,z} / V_
|
| s2 s3 → tʃː tʃ / V_
|
| 6.2.1 Proto-Erythrean to Proto-Cushitic | b → m / #_Vn
|
| ɡ → k / #{d,w}V_
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_Vx$
|
| 6.2.2.1 Proto-North Erythrean to Proto-Chadic | ŋ → ∅ / V_{ts,q}
|
| 6.2.2.1.1 Proto-North Erythrean to Proto-Boreafrasian | h → ħ / #_Vs
|
| ŋ → ∅ / #_CV
|
| 6.2.2.1.2 Proto-Boreafrasian to Egypto-Berber | h → ħ / _Vz
|
| l → ∅ / #{d,tʼ}_VC
|
| ɬ → s / #_VC
|
| f → p / #_V{Z,C[-voice],r}
|
| p → b / #dlV_
|
| k(w) → tʃ / #_Vt
|
| ɡ(w) → dʒ / #_Vd
|
| q → i / #_V{Z,C[+dental]}
|
| ʕ → i / #_VR
|
| ʔ → ʕ / _V{n,r,ɡ}
|
| {h,ħ,q} → ʕ / C[+voice]_V
|
| {h,ħ} → ʔ / KV_
|
| tlʼ → dl / #_Vħr
|
| r → l / #_V(V)O[+labial]
|
| l → r / #nV_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.3 Ancient Egyptian to Coptic | n → l / #_Vb
|
| n → l / #_(V){s,ʃ,h}V{m,b}#
|
| n → l / #_V{m,b}{s,ʃ,h}
|
| n → l / #_Vk
|
| n → l / mV_C
|
| n → l / CV_m
|
| 6.2.2.1.4 Proto-Boreafrasian to Proto-Semitic | ɣ → ɡ / #_VCH
|
| ɣ(w) → ɡ / #_Vx
|
| kʼ(w) → k / #dlV_
|
| 6.2.2.1.6 Classical Arabic to Cypriot Arabic | S → [+ voice] / {V,R}_V
|
| S → [+ voice] / V_R
|
| j(ː) → ∅ / V_E
|
| 6.2.2.1.7 Classical Arabic to Egyptian Arabic | Vː → V / C_C{ː,C}V
|
| V → Vː / C_CV in U[-stress]
|
| {i,u} → ∅ / VC_CV when unstressed (short only)
|
| ∅ → e / CVCC_CVCV (applies across word boundaries)
|
| 6.2.2.1.10 Classical Arabic to Hassāniyya Arabic | — j w → i u / #_CV
|
| 6.2.2.1.12 Classical Arabic to Eastern Libyan Arabic | ∅ → ə / C_CV(ː,V)CC
|
| 6.2.2.1.13 Classical Arabic to Western Libyan Arabic | ∅ → ə / CCV(ː,V)C_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.14 Classical Arabic to Moroccan Arabic | Cˤ → C / {#,V}_V
|
| 7 Algonquian | 7.2 Proto-Algonquian to St. Francis Abenaki | {R,h} → ∅ / V_V (sporadic?)
|
| 7.3 Proto-Algonquian to Proto-Arapaho-Atsina | W → n / {#,V}_
|
| s → h / {V,C}_
|
| r → n / {#,V}_
|
| 7.3.1 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Arapaho | ∅ → h / #_V
|
| 7.3.2 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Gros Ventre | ∅ → ʔ / #_V
|
| 7.4 Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot | ∅ → i / C_jV#
|
| 7.11 Proto-Algonquian to Munsee Delaware | x → χʷ / o(ː)_{V,#}
|
| 7.12 Proto-Algonquian to Menominee | w → ∅ / h_V
|
| Vː → V[-long] / CC(G)_C{V,#} “[i.e., when following a cluster but not followed by a cluster. Only applies ‘after the first long vowel of a nonglottal word, and everywhere in a glottal word’]”
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _C{V,#} in even syllables; “does not apply in the second syllable of a non-glottal word”
|
| 7.13 Proto-Algonquian to Miami-Illinois | s → ʃ / _iV
|
| {θ,l} → r → l / V_V
|
| S → ⁿS / #NV_ (sporadic)
|
| 7.17 Proto-Algonquian to Shawnee | V[-long] → ∅ / _hV
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _{ʔC,ʃp,ʃk,hV}
|
| ∅ → ʔ / C{v,d}_{ʃp,ʃk,hV}
|
| ∅ → h / #_V
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.1 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Japonic | b → w / ! _{a,ə,Vj}
|
| ɡ → ∅ / iV_
|
| 8.1.1 Early Middle Japanese to Modern Japanese | ɸ → w / V_V
|
| 8.2 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Korean | {tʰ,d} {k,ɡ} → r {h,∅} / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 8.3 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Mongolic | ɡ → h / ! {C,V}_h
|
| kʰ → ɡ / {C,V}_h
|
| 8.4 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Tungusic | o → {o,u} / _CV
|
| 8.5 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Turkic | tʰ → d / #_(V){lʲ,r(ʲ)}
|
| k → ɡ / _(V)r
|
| 8.5.1 Proto-Turkic to Proto-Kypchak | b → v / V_
|
| d → ð → j / V_
|
| ɡ → w / V_
|
| s → tʃ / _Vtʃ
|
| s → ç / _Vç
|
| f → w / _V
|
| 8.5.1.2 Proto-Kypchak to Kyrgyz | b → m / V_V (sporadic?)
|
| ɣ → ∅ / V_V
|
| 8.5.2 Proto-Turkic to Sakha | d s {ʃ,z} → t ∅ s / V_V
|
| 9 Austroasiatic | 9.1.1 Proto-Vietic to Muong Khen | w → ∅ / tʰV_k (conjectured)
|
| 9.1.2.1 Middle Vietnamese to Hanoi Vietnamese | w → ∅ / tV_wk (conjectured)
|
| 9.1.2.2 Middle Vietnamese to Saigon Vietnamese | w → ∅ / tV_wk (conjectured)
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.1.2.1 Proto-Philippine to Bicol | ə → a / V_V
|
| *j {*D,z} → r d / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.2 Proto-Philippine to Cebuano | *D d → l r / V_V
|
| {*j,*Z} z → l r / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.3 Proto-Philippine to Hiligaynon | {*Z,*j} z → l r / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.4 Proto-Philippine to Ibanag | z → r / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.6 Proto-Philippine to Ilocano | {z,*Z,*j} → d / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.7 Proto-Philippine to Proto-Kalamian | d → r / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.7.1 Proto-Kalamian to Agutaynen | k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| s → t / _V ! _E
|
| ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| 10.1.2.7.2 Proto-Kalamian to Karamiananen | k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| s → t / _V ! _E
|
| b → β / V_V
|
| ɡ → h / V_V
|
| ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| 10.1.2.7.3 Proto-Kalamian to Kalamian Tagbanwa | k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| b ɡ → β V / V_V
|
| ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| 10.1.2.8 Proto-Philippine to Kankanay | {z,*j} → d / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.9 Proto-Philippine to Tagalog | {*D,*j} {d,z} → l r / V_V
|
| 10.1.2.10 Proto-Philippine to Waray | {*D,*Z} → r / V_V
|
| *j → r / V_V
|
| 10.2.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Chamorro | ə → ∅ / VC_CV
|
| V → ∅ / VC_CV (sporadic)
|
| ∅ → w / #_V
|
| 10.2.4.1 Proto-Malayo-Javanic to Javanese | h → {o,h,w} / V_V
|
| 10.2.5 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Palauan | ∅ → w / u_V
|
| ∅ → j / i_V
|
| ∅ → ŋ / #_V
|
| 10.2.6 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-North Sarawak | ə → ∅ / _V
|
| C → Cː / ə_V (?)
|
| 10.2.6.1 Proto-North Sarawak to Kiput | ʔ → ∅ / V_V
|
| k → ∅ / V_V “(in some forms)”
|
| s → ∅ / V_V (sporadic)
|
| u → əw / _V “(also cases of (C)u → w /__V)”
|
| i → əj / _V “(also cases of (C)i → j /__V)”
|
| v ɡ ɟ → f k c / V_V
|
| k ŋ → ʔ ∅ / Və̯_#
|
| {s,c} → t / _V{s,c}V
|
| 10.2.6.2 Proto-North Sarawak to Proto-Kenyah | ʀ →h / V_V(C)#
|
| s → t / _VsVC
|
| CV → ∅ / _NCVC “(in reduplications)”
|
| 10.2.6.2.1 Proto-Kenyah to Òma Lóngh | i u → əj əw / _V(C)#
|
| p k → f ɣ / V_V ! ”ə_V
|
| d → r / V_V “(irregular)”
|
| dz → ɟ / V_V
|
| h → ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.2 Proto-Oceanic to Hiw | ”V[+ high(er)] → ∅ / _CV
|
| ”V → ə / _CV
|
| 10.3.3 Proto-Oceanic to Lemerig | V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| V → ∅ / CVC_C”V
|
| 10.3.4 Proto-Oceanic to Mwotlap | V → ∅ / (C)V_VC”V
|
| 10.3.5 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-New Caledonia | V → ∅ / _C”V
|
| 10.3.5.1 Proto-New Caledonia to Caaàc | V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
|
| {p,pw,k} → ∅ / V_V
|
| t c → l j / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.2 Proto-New Caledonia to Jawé | t̪ → l / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.3 Proto-New Caledonia to Nemi-Pije-Fwai | t̪ → l / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.4.1 Proto-Northern to Nixumwak-Nêlêmwa | k → c / V_V
|
| pw p t ʈ k c → (v)w v r l ɣ j / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.5 Proto-New Caledonia to Nyelâyu | V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
|
| p pw t̪ ʈ c → v (v)w r l j / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.6 Proto-New Caledonia to Pwaamei | ʈ → l / V_V
|
| k c → ∅ {j,∅} / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.7 Proto-New Caledonia to Pwapwâ | p pw t {k,c} → {v,∅} w l ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.8 Proto-New Caledonia to Proto-Yunaga | p pw t̪ ʈ k c → v w ð l ∅ j / V_V
|
| 10.3.6.1 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Äiwoo | {t,k} → ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.6.2 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Nagu | t → l / V_V
|
| 10.3.6.3 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Natügu | t k → l ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.7 Proto-Oceanic to Shark Bay | p ŋ → f ∅ / ”V_V
|
| V → ∅ / {”V,j}_
|
| ∅ → h / #_V (“it isn’t clear if this happens unconditionally”)
|
| 10.3.9.2 Proto-Utupua to Nebao | t → {r,t} / V_V
|
| 10.3.9.3 Proto-Utupua to Tanibili | t k → {t,r,kʷ,∅} ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.10 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Vanikoro | k → ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.10.3 Proto-Vanikoro to Vano | t → l / V_V
|
| 10.3.11.1 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Anejom | k → ∅ / V_V (sporadic?)
|
| 10.3.11.2.1 Proto-Erromango to Sye | f → v / V_V
|
| 10.3.11.2.2 Proto-Erromango to Ura | p → b / V_V
|
| 10.3.11.3.2 Proto-Tanna to Lenakel | r → l / _Vl
|
| 10.3.12 Proto-Oceanic to Vera’a | V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| V → ∅ / CVC_C”V
|
| 10.4.1 Proto-Micronesian to Marshallese | V → ∅ / ”VC_
|
| 10.5 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Ongan | q → ∅ / #_V
|
| 10.5.1 Proto-Ongan to Jarawa | e → {e,ə,o} / _V
|
| 10.5.2 Proto-Ongan to Onge | d → r / V_{V,#}
|
| e → {e,ə,o} / _V
|
| 11 Northeast Caucasian | 11.7.2 Proto-Tsezic to Tsez | tsː tɬː → z l / V_V
|
| 14 Elamo-Dravidian | 14.1 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Proto-Dravidian | w → v / #_{i,e}lV
|
| w → v / V_
|
| k ʃk → k* kː / V_V (the asterisk-marked k is what McAlpin terms “weak k”, which tends to drop out in morphology)
|
| t → ∅ / #_VrC
|
| t → {t,ʈ} / V_V
|
| rt → ʈ / V_V
|
| p → v / V_V
|
| s → t / #_VLV
|
| s → j / V_{V,#}
|
| s → ∅ / #V_{r̀,l}
|
| s → ∅ / C_V
|
| s → ∅ / V_C
|
| ŕ → r / V_V
|
| n nː rn → {n̲,r} n̲(ː) ɳ / V_V
|
| l lː → {l,ɭ} ɭ(ː) / V_V
|
| l → ɭ / V_#
|
| 14.2 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Achaemanid Elamite | w → ú / V_ (McAlpin uses the accented-vowel notation due to some apparent height-contrast neutralizations before /a/)
|
| k ŋk ŋkː → ∅ k kː / V_V
|
| mp → p(ː) / V_V
|
| ɲc → ns / V_V
|
| r̀ → r / V_{V,C}
|
| ŕ → rː / V_V
|
| l → n / V_#
|
| v → m / #_V (?)
|
| 14.3.1 Standard Tamil to Colloquial Tamil | {k,v} → ∅ / V_V
|
| {ɾ,l,ɭ} → ∅ / V_S
|
| 15 Eskimo-Aleut | 15.2.4 Proto-Eskimo to Wales Iñupiaq | p k q s → v ɣ ʁ z / V_V
|
| v → u / V_V
|
| v → ∅ / u_V
|
| v → ∅ / V_u
|
| ɣ → ∅ / V_u
|
| ɣ → ∅ / u_V
|
| ɣ → u / {i,ə}_V
|
| 15.2.5 Proto-Eskimo to Kuskokwim Yup’ik | C → Cː / _V(…V) except in #U
|
| i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
|
| 15.2.6 Proto-Eskimo to Nunivak Yup’ik | C → Cː / _V(…V) except in #U
|
| i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
|
| 15.2.7 Proto-Eskimo to Siberian Yup’ik | i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
|
| 15.2.8 Proto-Eskimo to Unaaliq Yup’ik | C → Cː / _V(…V), after #U
|
| i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| u → ∅ / #_vV
|
| s → dʒ / {i,u}_V
|
| 16 Extended West Papuan | 16.1.1 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Nafri | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 16.1.2 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Central Sentani | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 16.1.3 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Eastern Sentani | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 16.1.4 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Western Sentani | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 16.1.5 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Tabla | i → ∅ / V_ (with a few exceptions)
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Gheg Albanian | d dʱ → ð / V_V
|
| s → ʃ / V{i̯,u̯,r,k}_V
|
| s → h / V_V
|
| i̯ → h / V_
|
| 17.1.2 Proto-Indo-European to Tosk Albanian | d dʱ → ð / V_V
|
| s → ʃ / V{i̯,u̯,r,k}_V
|
| s → h / V_V
|
| i̯ → h / V_
|
| n → ∅ / V_C?
|
| 17.2 Proto-Indo-European to Common Anatolian | H → R / VR_V
|
| 17.2.1 Common Anatolian to Hittite | j → ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.2.2 Common Anatolian to Luwian | k → ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.2.3 Common Anatolian to Lycian | ɡ → ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.2.4 Common Anatolian to Lydian | j → ð / V_V
|
| 17.3.1 Proto-Indo-European to Artsakh Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| l → ɫ / V_V
|
| 17.3.2 Proto-Indo-European to Erevan Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| l → ɫ / V_V
|
| 17.3.3 Proto-Indo-European to Istanbul Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| l → ɫ / V_V
|
| 17.3.4 Proto-Indo-European to Kharpert Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| l → ɫ / V_V
|
| 17.3.5 Proto-Indo-European to Sebastia Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| l → ɫ / V_V
|
| 17.3.6 Proto-Indo-European to Southeast Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| l → ɫ / V_V
|
| 17.3.7 Proto-Indo-European to Southwest Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| l → ɫ / V_V
|
| 17.5 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic | — H → ∅ / V_C when pretonic
|
| 17.5.1 Proto-Indo-European to Old Irish | p → f / {V,#}_
|
| r̩ l̩ → {ra,ar} {la,al} / _{s,CC,V,#} (the results are unpredictable)
|
| m̩ n̩ → am an / _{s,({m,j,w)V}
|
| ɡʷ → b / #_V ! _u(ː)
|
| ɡʷ → b / C_V
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ m n l r s → f θ x xʷ v ð ɣ M N L R h / V(#)_{R,V} (“We don’t know the exact values of lenited /m n l r/. We can guess that lenited m became a nasalized labial continuant of some sort, but beyond that, we don’t know.”)
|
| k → x / V_t
|
| m → n / V_#; “[i]t is thought that the vowel needs to be unstressed, but this is not certain”
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ ∅ → b d ɡ ɡʷ mb nd ŋɡ n / n#_”V
|
| w → ∅ / V_{V,#}
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | s → ∅ / V_V
|
| j → ð / V_
|
| p t k {b,m} d ɡ → b d ɡ v ð ɣ / _V
|
| $ → h / V_ (what $ is is unclear)
|
| ɣ → i / C_V
|
| 17.7.1 Common Germanic to Gothic | oːw æːj → ɔː ɛː / _V
|
| β ð ɣ → ɸ θ x / V_(s)#
|
| ɣ → ɡ / C_V
|
| 17.7.2 Common Germanic to West Germanic | β ð ɣ → b d ɡ / {#,”V}_
|
| 17.7.2.1 West Germanic to Anglo-Frisian | h → ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.2 Old English to Kentish Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| oɣ → ɔːw / _V
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.3 Old English to Midlands Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| oɣ → ɔːw / _V
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.5 Early Modern English to American English | {t,d} → ɾ / V_V[-stress]
|
| 17.7.2.1.6 Early Modern English to Australian English | t d → ɾ / V_V[-stress]
|
| j → ∅ / %{θ,s,z,l}_”V
|
| 17.7.2.1.8 Old English to Northern Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| oɣ → ɔːw / _V
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.10 Old English to Scots | d~ð → d / V_u
|
| d~ð → ð / V_V
|
| {f,v} → ∅ / {l,r,V}_ (sometimes blocked)
|
| ð → ∅ / {l,r,V}_C
|
| θ → f / {V,r}_# (sometimes blocked)
|
| V → Vː / _{r,F[+ voice],V,#}
|
| t → ʔ / V_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.11 Scots to Falkirk Scots | n → ∅ / V_C (in words of more than one syllable)
|
| k → ç / V_# ! _C “(sometimes)”; “(except when phonemic)”
|
| ɡ → ʝ / V_# ! _C “(most times)”
|
| p b → ɸ β / {#,V}_ ! _C
|
| n → ∅ / V_V# “in some disyllabic words”
|
| 17.7.2.1.12 Old English to Southern Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| oɣ → ɔːw / _V
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.14 Anglo-Frisian to Old Frisian | h → ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.15 North Frisian Lenition | p t k → b d ɡ → v r ɣ / Vː_{V,#}
|
| 17.7.2.2 West Germanic to Old Low Franconian | h → ∅ / V_V
|
| uː → ʉw / _V (probably, in most areas)
|
| uː → ʊw / _V (probably, in areas that did not undergo the above change, such as Limburg)
|
| 17.7.2.3 Middle High German to Standard German | {h,j} → ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.7.2.4 High German Cosonant Shift and Umlaut | p t k → fː zː xː / V_V
|
| β → b / V_V
|
| 17.7.2.5 West Germanic to Old Low German | ɡ → ɣ / _V (singleton only)
|
| 17.7.3 Common Germanic to Proto-Norse | β → ∅ / V_B
|
| i → j / _V ! in #U
|
| n → ∅ / V{ː,V}_hV
|
| Vn → Vː / _hV
|
| 17.7.3.1 Proto-Norse to Old Norse | {l(ː),n}{r,ʀ} → ∅ / V{ː,V}_
|
| ai → aː / _h{C,V}
|
| θ f → ð v / {V,C[+ voiced]}_{V,C[+ voiced]}
|
| ts → sː / V_V
|
| r → ∅ / {p,t,k}_Vr
|
| o → u / V_
|
| 17.7.3.1.1 Old Norse to Early Icelandic | t → ð / V_# “in some verbal endings”
|
| ɡ ɟ → ɣ j / V_V
|
| ɡ → ɣ / V_#
|
| S[- voice] → Sʰ / #v_V
|
| V → Vː / ! _CCV, in polysyllables
|
| {n̥n,nn̥ → tn̥ / V_
|
| nː → tn̥ / V_#
|
| nː → tn / V_
|
| 17.7.3.1.2 Old Norse to Orkney Norn | p(ː) t(ː) k(ː) → b(ː) d(ː) ɡ(ː) / {V,R}_{V,R}
|
| f → ∅ / Vː_V
|
| θ → ð / V_V
|
| ð → d / ! V_V
|
| s → ʃ / _Vr ?
|
| l → ∅ / V_V
|
| ɒ → {ɛ,e} / _CːV (V can be a syllabic consonant)
|
| ei → eː / _C(ː,V)# (V can be a syllabic consonant)
|
| 17.7.3.1.3 Old Norse to Shetland Norn | p t k → b d ɡ / V_V (the second V at least can be a syllabic consonant)
|
| ɡ(ː) → dʒ / _iV
|
| pː tː kː → b d {ɡ,ɣ} / V_V
|
| ∅ → h / #_V
|
| h → ∅ / _{V,w,j} (sporadic)
|
| 17.8.1 Proto-Indo-European to Aeolian Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.8.2 Proto-Indo-European to Attic Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| eː → iː / _V
|
| b d ɡ → v ð ɣ / V_V
|
| 17.8.3 Proto-Indo-European to Boeotian Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.8.4 Proto-Indo-European to Coan Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.8.5 Proto-Indo-European to Cretan Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.8.6 Proto-Indo-European to Doric Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.8.7 Proto-Indo-European to Elian Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.8.8 Proto-Indo-European to Ionic Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| eː → iː / _V
|
| 17.8.9 Proto-Indo-European to Laconian Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.8.10 Proto-Indo-European to Mycenaean Greek | s → h / V_V
|
| 17.10 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian | o → aː / _CV, “does not affect o2 < eh3”
|
| 17.10.1 Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Indo-Aryan | R̊H → {u,i}R / _V (sporadic)
|
| n → ɳ / R(V)_
|
| s → ʂ / _V{ʂ,ʈ,ɖ(ʱ)}
|
| 17.10.1.1 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Central Middle Indo-Aryan | j w → dʒ b / V_V
|
| C → C[+voiced] / V_V
|
| {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
|
| C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
|
| Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
|
| dʒɲ → ɳː / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.2 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Eastern Middle Indo-Aryan | j w → dʒ b / V_V
|
| C → C[+voiced] / V_V
|
| {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| b {d,dʒ,ɡ} → v j / V_V
|
| Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
|
| C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
|
| Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
|
| dʒɲ → ɲː / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.3 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Northwestern Middle Indo-Aryan | j w → dʒ b / V_V
|
| C → C[+voiced] / V_V
|
| {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
|
| C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
|
| Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
|
| dʒɲ → ɳː / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.4 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Western Middle Indo-Aryan | j w → dʒ b / V_V
|
| C → C[+voiced] / V_V
|
| {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V
|
| Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V
|
| C1C2 → C2C2 / V_V
|
| Cn → CC / V_V ! C = dʒ
|
| dʒɲ → ɳː / V_V
|
| 17.10.1.5.1 Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit | au aːu ai aːi → au oː ai eː / ! _V
|
| 17.11 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Slavic | e → ь / _jV
|
| e → o / _wV
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | tsi ʐi → tɕ ʐ / V_
|
| {i,ɨ} → ∅ / _jV when unstressed
|
| t → r / tV_
|
| n → m / {b,p}{l,r,ʐ}V_
|
| OR → RO / V_C
|
| RO → OR / C_V
|
| vC → Cv / _V
|
| n → s / k_Vn
|
| 17.11.2 Proto-Slavic to Old Russian | {t,d} → ∅ / V_lV
|
| je → o / V_ (sporadic)
|
| j → ∅ / V_u (sporadic)
|
| 17.12.1 Proto-Italic to Proto-Latino-Falsican | ɸ θ → b {d,b} / V_V
|
| 17.12.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Latin | V → o / %(C)(C)V_% when unstressed
|
| t → d / V_
|
| dʱ → b / rV_
|
| dʱ → b / _Vr
|
| w → ∅ / ɡV_{l,r}
|
| ɡʷʱ → v / V_V
|
| s → z → r / V_V
|
| l → r / lV_ “(in suffixes with l if root already has l)”
|
| 17.12.1.1.1 Classical Latin vs. Vulgar Latin | {e,i} → j / C_V when unstressed
|
| j → ʝ / #_V
|
| j → ʝː / V_V
|
| 17.12.1.1.2 Latin to Catalan | V → ∅ / ”V%C_L(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%L_C(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%s_t(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| iː → i / _%”V
|
| {i,eː,e} → e / _%”V
|
| i → j / ”V_#
|
| uː → u / _%”V
|
| {u,o(ː)} → u / _%”V in East Catalan
|
| {u,o(ː)} → o / _%”V else
|
| ae au → e o / _%”V
|
| o → u / _%”V (irregular)
|
| l → ∅ / {o,u}_CV
|
| l → w / V_CV (“although l was usually restored later”)
|
| p b t d k ɡ → β {β,w} ∅ {j,w} ɣ {j,∅,ɡ} / V_rV
|
| p b → b w / V_lV (the latter is irregular)
|
| {kl,ɡl} → ʎ / V_V (the latter is irregular)
|
| sk → ʃ / V_{i,e}
|
| p k → ∅ j / V_tV
|
| k → ∅ / Vn_tV
|
| ks → ʃ / V_V
|
| ɡn tj → ɲ ∅ / V_V
|
| sj ssj jn → js jʃ ɲ / V_V
|
| mnj → {mni,ɲ} / V_V
|
| lj rj kj ɡj → ʎ jr ts ʒ / V_V
|
| {bj,vj} → wʒ / _%”V
|
| V → ∅ / _%”V (rare)
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%_(C)(C)V(C)# (“irregular; e is kept before n”)
|
| b → v / V_V
|
| p t → b d / V_V
|
| f → v / V_V (irregular)
|
| s → z / ”V%V_V
|
| s → ∅ / V_V%”V
|
| k ɡ → ∅ {∅,ʒ} / V_{i,e} (ɡ → ʒ is learned)
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_V%”V
|
| k j → ɡ ʒ / V_V
|
| — d → z → ∅ / V_V
|
| — d → w / _V#
|
| t → ∅ / V_sV
|
| {b,v} → w / V_#
|
| kʷ → k / C_V
|
| kʷ → ɡ / V_{i,e}
|
| kʷ → k / #_a%”V
|
| kʷ → ɡw / V_a
|
| b → m → ∅ / Vm_V
|
| k → w / V_rV
|
| {b,v} → w / V_tV
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_dV
|
| 17.12.1.1.3 Latin to French | — u → ∅ / CC_V
|
| — V → ”V / ”VSr_
|
| — V → ”V / _C*”{i,e}V
|
| — {i,e} → j / _V
|
| j → ∅ / V_”E
|
| j → dʒ / V_V (rare)
|
| {p,b} {t,d} → v ð / V_{V,r}
|
| v → ∅ / V_B
|
| (t)s → (d)z / V_V
|
| k → js / V_sV
|
| {k,ɡ} → ∅ / V_B
|
| kʷ → {v,u} / V_E
|
| kʷ → j{v,u} / V_a
|
| t → ∅ / V_#
|
| ɔ → u / _”V
|
| V[-high] → ə → ∅ / _V “(except that a is kept before o)”
|
| 17.12.1.1.4 Vulgar Latin to Italian | ɡ → ∅ / a_V
|
| j → dʒ / V_V
|
| b → v / V_
|
| C → Cː / V_jV
|
| t k → d ɡ / V_r
|
| 17.12.1.1.5 Latin to Portuguese | V → ∅ / _L(C)(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| u → w / _V (between first and stressed syllables)
|
| w → u / _”V
|
| w → ∅ / _V
|
| iː {i,e(ː)} → i e / _%”V
|
| {u,o(ː)} → o / _%”V
|
| ɫ → w / V_Ca
|
| o → u / _(”V)
|
| V → a / _{n,r}(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → V[+nas] / _N$V
|
| N → ∅ / V[+nas]_$V
|
| e → o / _m”V (irregular)
|
| V → ∅ / _”V (irregular)
|
| e → i / _(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| s → ʃ / V_C[-voiced]V
|
| s → ʒ / V_C[+voiced]V
|
| kʷ → ɡ / V_{i,e}
|
| kʷ → k / VC_{a,i,e}
|
| kʷ → ɡw / V_a
|
| b → v / V_{V,r}
|
| d → ∅ / V_V
|
| ɡ → {∅,ʒ} / V_{i,e} (ɡ → ʒ is learned)
|
| ɡ → j / V_r
|
| pl bl p t → br {br,l} b d / V_V (bl → l is learned)
|
| p t k → b d ɡ / V_r
|
| p → ∅ / V_{t,s}V
|
| k → j / V_tV
|
| k → ∅ / Vn_tV
|
| ks ɡn tj → ʃ ɲ {z,s} / V_V (tj → s is learned)
|
| tj → s / C_V
|
| dj → dʒ → ʒ / V_V
|
| dj → dz → ts → s / r_V
|
| ndj → nts → ns → ɲ / V_V
|
| sj → jʒ / V_V
|
| j → ∅ / i_ʒV
|
| sːj (m)nj lj rj → jʃ ɲʎ jr / V_V
|
| kj → ts → s / V_V
|
| ɡj → {ʒ,j} / V_V (ɡj → j is learned)
|
| pj {bj,vj} → jb jv / V_V
|
| f → v / V_V (irregular)
|
| s l → z ∅ / V_V
|
| sk k → jʃ z / V_{i,e}
|
| j → {∅,ʒ} / V_V (j → ʒ is learned)
|
| b → v / VL_V
|
| {e,i} → ∅ / {L,N}_(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| o → ∅ / _(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| d → ∅ / V_V (in Portugal)
|
| 17.12.1.1.6 Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal | — e → i / _V (and possibly V_?)
|
| — e → i / _(C…)i{C(C…)V,#}
|
| d → ∅ / V_V (seems to have happened in the north and northeast at some point)
|
| b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / V_V
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_(VC…)”V
|
| j → ∅ / V_”E
|
| p t k s → b d ɡ z / V_V (this b → v?)
|
| β → w / V_C
|
| β → u / V_(s)#
|
| n → ∅ / V_# (did not occur in extreme western areas, some northern areas, the southeast, and the east)
|
| ɡ → {k,j} / V_ (if /j/ resulted, it dropped after /i/; forms with k are “most persistent in the west” and more common overall)
|
| l → w / V_s
|
| β → b / V_V (in western and some central dialects)
|
| tʃ → jdz → jz / V_V (in the south and northwest)
|
| tʃ → dz → z / V_V (otherwise)
|
| j → dʒ / V_V (did not occur in the northeast and some northern dialects)
|
| rj → rʲ → ir / V_V
|
| 17.12.1.1.7 Vulgar Latin to Rhaeto-Romance | C[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (only for obstruents?)
|
| C[- voiced] → C[+ voiced] / V_V
|
| 17.12.1.1.8 Latin to Romanian | u → ∅ / CC_V
|
| V → ”V / ”VSr_
|
| V → ”V / _(C…)”{i,e}V
|
| — u → o / ! V_
|
| s → i / #(C…)V_#
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → p b / V_a
|
| i → ∅ / {ts,dz,S}_V
|
| li → lj / _V
|
| {b,v} → ∅ / V_{V,t}
|
| l → r / V_V
|
| m → u / a_nV
|
| b → u / V_{l,r}
|
| dj → z / V_V
|
| e → ə / ”U…P_(C…)V# ! V = i
|
| u → ∅ / ! {OL,”V}_#
|
| a → a / #(C…)V…C[+palatal]_…”U
|
| a o → ə u / #(C…)V…_…”U
|
| e → i / #(C…)V…_n…”U
|
| e → ə / #(C…)V…{t,d,n}_…”U
|
| 17.12.1.1.9 Latin to Sardinian | e → i / C_V
|
| i → j / V_V
|
| i → j / _V
|
| {b,v,w} → ∅ / V_V
|
| nd {lː,ld} → ɳɖ ɖː / V_V
|
| {i,j} → dʒ / Vr_V (“dialectal”)
|
| S[- voice] → S[+ voice] / V_”V
|
| w → ∅ / #k_V
|
| t → d / V_rV
|
| d → ∅ / V_{i,j}
|
| n{i,j} t{i,j} → ndʒ ts / _V
|
| d → r / V_V (“[s]ome Campidanese”)
|
| 17.12.1.1.10 Vulgar Latin to Spanish | b → β / V_V
|
| ɾj pj → jɾ jp / V_
|
| d → {∅,ð} / V_V
|
| ɡ → {∅,ɣ} / V_V
|
| p t k s ts → b d ɡ z dz / V_V
|
| sj → js / V_
|
| e → ∅ / V{d,s,n,l,ɾ}_#
|
| d ɡ → ð ɣ / V_V
|
| /dɾ/ [ðɾ] → ɾ / V_V
|
| 17.12.2.2 Proto-Sibellian to Umbrian | d → rs / V_V
|
| 17.13 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Tocharian | Ch → C / _(V)Ch
|
| H → ∅ / V_V
|
| 17.13.1 Proto-Tocharian to Tocharian A | n → j / V_sV ! E_
|
| V → j / V_nʲtʲ ! V = E
|
| 17.13.2 Proto-Tocharian to Tocharian B | mn → nm / V_V
|
| 18 Je-Tupı́-Carib | 18.1.1 Pre-Bakairi to Eastern Bakairi | ɾ → ∅ / V_V, when neither vowel is stressed
|
| 18.1.2 Pre-Bakairi to Western Bakairi | z → h / V_a
|
| z → ∅ / V_V
|
| ɾ → ∅ / V_V, where at least one of the vowels is nasalized
|
| 18.2.1 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Proto-Jê | VS → r / C_V
|
| ə → ∅ / C_CV (not sure if this happened all the time or not)
|
| 18.2.2 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Ofaié-Xavante | ŋ → n / V_V
|
| 18.3.1 Proto-Tuparí to Makuráp | t → r / _”V
|
| t → l / _V
|
| b → β / V_V
|
| h → ∅ / V_C
|
| 18.3.2 Proto-Tuparí to Mekens | t → r / _”V
|
| h → ∅ / V_C
|
| 18.3.3 Proto-Tuparí to Tuparí | t → r / _V
|
| 18.3.4 Proto-Tuparí to Wayoró | p → β / V_
|
| t → r / _”V
|
| p t → ∅ l / _V
|
| b → ∅ / V_V
|
| h → ∅ / V_C
|
| 18.4.2 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Cocama | iʔ uʔ → j w / C_V
|
| 18.4.7 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Parintintín | ∅ → ŋ / {#,V}_w
|
| 18.4.8 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Sirionó | w → {ɡ,k} / {#,V}_
|
| 18.4.9.1.1 Proto-Monde to Gavião | h → ∅ / V_ (sporadic, likely an areal feature)
|
| 18.4.9.1.2 Proto-Monde to Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró | h → ∅ / V_
|
| 18.4.9.1.4 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Suruí | h → ∅ / V_
|
| 18.4.9.1.5 Proto-Cinta Larga-Suruí-Zoró to Zoró | h → ∅ / V_
|
| ∅ → ʔ / V_#
|
| 20 Khoisan | 20.2.2 Proto-Kx’a to Northwestern !Xun | i → ∅ / V_
|
| 20.2.3 Proto-Kx’a to Southeastern !Xun | i → ∅ / V_
|
| 21 Lakes Plain | 21.1 Proto-Lakes Plain to Proto-Far West | d → ɾ / V_V
|
| ∅ → echo vowel / C_CV
|
| 21.1.1 Proto-Far West to Awera | k → ɣ / V_V
|
| b d ɡ → β~w ɾ~∅ ɣ / V_V
|
| ti → s / #_V
|
| 21.1.2 Proto-Far West to Saponi | ti → s / #_V
|
| p b d k → p~f w ɾ ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.1.3 Proto-Far West to Rasawa | p b d k → ɸ β ɾ x~k / V_V
|
| ti → s / #_V
|
| 21.2 Proto-Lakes Plain to Proto-Tariku | p d → ɸ ɾ / V_V
|
| 21.2.1 Proto-Tariku to Proto-Central Tariku | ∅ → echo vowel / C_CV
|
| ti → s~ti / _V
|
| d → ɾ~d / V_V
|
| 21.2.1.2 Proto-Central Tariku to Iau | ɾ → ∅ / V_V
|
| 21.2.2 Proto-Tariku to Proto-East Tariku | ti → s~ti / _V
|
| ɾ → ɾ~∅ / V_V
|
| 21.2.2.1 Proto-East Tariku to Biritai | ∅ → dz / î_V
|
| 21.2.2.2 Proto-East Tariku to Doutai | di → dz / _V
|
| 21.2.2.4 Proto-East Tariku to Kai | ∅ → dz / î_V
|
| 21.2.2.6 Proto-East Tariku to Sikaritai | ∅ → dz / î_V
|
| 21.2.2.7 Proto-East Tariku to Waritai | ∅ → dz / î_V
|
| 21.2.3 Proto-Tariku to Proto-West Tariku | ɾ → ɾ~∅ / V_V
|
| 21.2.3.1 Proto-West Tariku to Deirate | b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| ti di → s dz / _V
|
| 21.2.3.2 Proto-West Tariku to Faia | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| ti → s / _V
|
| 21.2.3.3 Proto-West Tariku to Fayu | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| ti di → s dz / _V
|
| 21.2.3.4 Proto-West Tariku to Kirikiri | b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| ti → s / _V
|
| 21.2.3.5 Proto-West Tariku to Sehudate | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| ti di → s dz / _V
|
| 21.2.3.6 Proto-West Tariku to Tause | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| ti di → s j / _V
|
| 21.2.3.7 Proto-West Tariku to Weirate | b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| ti di → s dz / _V
|
| 23 Macro-Chibchan | 23.1.1.1.1 Proto-Chibchan to Arhuaco | s → kh / _(V)k
|
| s d → z r / _(V)j
|
| ∅ → u / w_V
|
| j → ∅ / i_V
|
| i → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.2 Proto-Chibchan to Chibcha | b → p / _Vkʷ
|
| s → h / V_V
|
| a {e,i} → i ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| a → ∅ / _”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.3 Proto-Chibchan to Kogi | s → h / _Vn
|
| j → i / C(V)_
|
| 23.1.1.1.4 Proto-Chibchan to Marocacero | i → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.5 Proto-Chibchan to Motilón | d → ∅ / V_s
|
| {u,i} → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.6 Proto-Chibchan to Tunebo | s → h / _(V)C
|
| {a,i} → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| 24 Macro-Pama-Nyungan | 24.1.2 Proto-Paman to AwÅtim | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| ∅ → j / #(C)iː(C)_V ! _i
|
| ∅ → w / #(C)uː(C)_V ! _u
|
| ∅ → a / #(C)aː(C)_V ! _a
|
| 24.1.3 Proto-Paman to LinÅitiÉ£ | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| N → ∅ / #NV_SV
|
| 24.1.6 Proto-Paman to Uraði | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| 25 Macro-Panoan | 25.1.3 Proto-Tacanan to Reyesano | j → tʃ / V_V
|
| 25.1.4 Proto-Tacanan to Tacana | j → tʃ / V_V
|
| 27 Mayan | 27.5 Proto-Mayan to Kaqchikel-Tz’utujil | ɓ w → ʔ j / VCV_#
|
| 28 Muskogean | 28 Muskogean | k → ∅ / V_C ! penult
|
| 28.1 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Eastern Muskogean | VC[+ weak] → ∅ / _V#
|
| 28.1.1 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Alabama | kV → ∅ / V_#
|
| 28.1.2 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Creek | V1kV2 → V2ː / #((C)V(C))(C)_#
|
| S → S[+ voice] / V_V
|
| 28.1.3 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Hitchiti | V → ∅ / Vk_#
|
| 28.1.5 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Mikasuri | V → ∅ / Vk_#
|
| 28.2 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Western Muskogean | C1[+ weak] C2[+ weak] → ʔ h / V_V#
|
| V → ∅ / V{k,ʔ,h}_#
|
| i → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)V(C)(C)_# (sporadic in the case of other vowels)
|
| 28.2.2 Proto-Western Muskogean to Choctaw | xʷ → h / V_V
|
| 29 Na-Dene | 29.1.1.1.15 Proto-Athabaskan to Upper Koyukon | w → m / _Vn (sporadic)
|
| 30 Niger-Congo | 30.1 Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu to Proto-Bantu | ɪ̃ → ɛ̃ / #(C)V_C
|
| ʋ̃ → m / #(C)V_
|
| O[+nas -voiced] → O[-nas] / #(C)VC_
|
| 30.1.1.1 Proto-Bantu to Sebirwa | ∅ → ɡ / #n_V (in verbs)
|
| 30.1.1.2 Proto-Bantu to Tswana | {p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n} → s tsʰ ts ɲ / _iV
|
| {tʃ,k} {ntʃ,nk,r} {ɲdʒ,nɡ} mp mb p b {d,l} m n → s tsʰ ts tʃʰ(w) tʃ(w) ʃ(w) dʒ(w) dʒ ŋw ɲ / _{ɪ,e}V
|
| {p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n,ɲ} → sw tsʰw tsw ɲw / _iV
|
| mp mb p b m → tʃʰ(w) tʃ(w) ʃ(w) dʒ(w) ŋw / _{ʊ,o}V
|
| 30.1.2 Pre-Proto-Bantu to Proto-Manenguba | {u,o} {ɛ,e,i} → w j / C_$V in noun class prefixes
|
| 30.2 Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu to Proto-Potou-Akanic | ɰɰ̃ →l l̃ / #(C)V_
|
| C → J / #(C)V_
|
| 30.2.1.1 Proto-Akanic to Akan | n → ŋ / #(C)V_
|
| V → ∅ / #(C)VC[-coronal]_
|
| ʋ l → w ɹ / #(C)V_
|
| 31 Nyulnyulan | 31.1 Proto-Nyulnyulan to Bardi | ɟ → j / V_V
|
| V0 → ∅ / V(C)(C)V0(C)(C)_# (with some exceptions)
|
| 32 Oto-Manguean | 32.1.3 Proto-Chatino to Yaitepec Chatino | s → ʃ / V_V
|
| 33 Penutian | 33.1.1.1 Proto-Costanoan to Chochenyo | l → ɾ / V_V
|
| 33.1.1.3 Proto-Costanoan to Mutsun | l → ɾ / V_V
|
| 33.1.1.4 Proto-Costanoan to Rumsen | l → ɾ / V_V
|
| 33.3.1.2 Buena Vista Yokuts to Hometwoli | ∅ → h / V(ː)_, when stressed (only sometimes, “particularly before consonants”)
|
| 33.3.3 Proto-Yokuts to Palewyami | {u,a} → e / _CVC#, when stressed (short only)
|
| i → e / _CVC#, when stressed (! _H, short only)
|
| V → e / C”VC_
|
| 34 Quechumaran | 34.1 Proto-Quechumaran to Ayachuco | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| 34.2 Proto-Quechumaran to Bolivia | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| 34.3 Proto-Quechumaran to Cuzco | ph → p / #_VA
|
| ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| 34.4 Proto-Quechumaran to Huarás | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| 34.5 Proto-Quechumaran to Putamayo | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| 34.6 Proto-Quechumaran to Quito | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| 34.7 Proto-Quechumaran to Riobamba | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| ɸ → pʰ / _V
|
| 34.8 Proto-Quechumaran to Santiago | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| w → ∅ / V_V
|
| 34.9 Proto-Quechumaran to Tena | ʈʂ → tʃ / _V
|
| 35 Salishan | 35.1.1 Proto-Central Salish to Comox | w j → ɡ dʒ / _V
|
| 35.1.2 Proto-Central Salish to Chilliwack Halkomelem | ʔ → ∅ / VR_V3
|
| lʔn → lː / V3_V
|
| 35.1.3 Proto-Central Salish to Cowichan Halkomelem | V3ʔR → {V3ʔR,V3ːRʔ} / _V
|
| 35.1.4 Proto-Central Salish to Musqueam Halkomelem | V3ʔR → {V3ʔR,V3ːRʔ} / _V
|
| 35.1.5 Proto-Central Salish to Klallam | w j → kʷ tʃ / _V
|
| 35.1.6 Proto-Central Salish to Lushootseed | w j → ɡʷ dz / _V
|
| 35.1.7 Proto-Central Salish to Nooksack | ʔR → {ʔS,R} / V3_V
|
| ʔ → ∅ / VR_V3
|
| 35.1.8 Proto-Central Salish to Lummi Northern Straits | j → tʃ / _V
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V3l_nV
|
| 35.1.9 Proto-Central Salish to Saanich Northern Straits | j w → tʃ kʷ / _V
|
| ʔR → Rʔ / V3_V
|
| 35.1.10 Proto-Central Salish to Songish Northern Straits | j w → tʃ kʷ / _V
|
| 35.1.11 Proto-Central Salish to Sooke Northern Straits | j w → tʃ kʷ / _V
|
| 35.1.12 Proto-Central Salish to Pentlatch | ʔ → ∅ / V3R_{V,#}
|
| 35.1.13 Proto-Central Salish to Sechelt | ʔ → ∅ / V_V3
|
| 35.1.14 Proto-Central Salish to Sqamish | ʔR → Rʔ / V3_V
|
| 35.1.15 Proto-Central Salish to Twana | ʔR → ʔ{R,b} / V3_V
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.1.1 Late Middle Chinese to Old Mandarin | ∅ → w / P_V
|
| k → w / V_
|
| {p,t} → ∅ / V_
|
| 36.1.1.1 Old Mandarin to Modern Pekingese | m → n / V_
|
| 36.2 Sin Sukchu to Guānhuà | w → u / _V
|
| 36.3.1.1 Proto-Naish to Laze | {Np,mb} → b / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred at other POAs)
|
| {r,s}p(ʰ) {r,s}{Np,(m)b} → f v / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred at other POAs)
|
| {r,s}k {r,s}Nk → f w / _V
|
| S{b,ɡ} Sk → v h / _V
|
| {r,s}l {r,s}n → l̥ N̥ / %_V
|
| n̥ → l̥ / %_V
|
| l̥ → ɬ / %_V
|
| 36.3.1.2 Proto-Naish to Mosuo (Na) | {Np,mb} → b / _V
|
| {r,s}pʰ {r,s}{(N)p,(m)b} → pʰ p b / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred with stops at other POAs)
|
| {r,s}k {r,s}Nk → k ʁ / _V
|
| n̥ → l̥ / %_V
|
| l̥ → ɬ / %_V
|
| 36.3.1.3 Proto-Naish to Naxi | N → ∅ / _pV
|
| {r,s}pʰ {r,s}(N)p {r,s}b {r,s}mb → pʰ p b mb / _V (the paper implies similar developments occurred with stops at other POAs)
|
| {r,s}(N)k → k / _V
|
| Sb Sk Sɡ → b ? ɡ / _V
|
| n̥ → l̥ → h / %_V
|
| {r,s} → ∅ / %_V
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.1.1 Proto-Iroquoian to Cherokee | s → ∅ / #h_V
|
| ks → ts / _V
|
| t ts k kʷ → d dz ɡ ɡʷ / _V
|
| 37.1.2 Proto-Iroquoian to Proto-Northern Iroquoian | ∅ → i(ː) / #_(C)(C)CVC(C)(C)#
|
| t → ∅ / n_V
|
| 37.1.2.1 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Cayuga | ts → hs / V_ ! _{h,i,j,r}
|
| r → ∅ / VH_
|
| r → ∅ / V_V
|
| 37.1.2.1.1 Cayuga to Upper Cayuga | t k kʷ → d ɡ ɡʷ / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.1.2 Cayuga to Lower Cayuga | t k kʷ → d ɡ ɡʷ / _{V,R} ! _V[-voiced]
|
| 37.1.2.2 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Huron | k → x / {#,R,ʔ,V}_{V,ʔ,R,#}
|
| kʷ → xʷ / V_V
|
| j → ∅ / #_V
|
| j → ∅ / V_{V,#}
|
| 37.1.2.2.1 Huron to Wyandot | ∅ → w / {o(ː),õ(ː)}_V
|
| ∅ → j / {e(ː),ẽ(ː),i(ː)}_V
|
| j → ʒ / {#,ʔ,V}_V
|
| x → j / _V
|
| 37.1.2.3 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Onondaga | ts → hs / V_V ! _i
|
| ”V → ”Vː / _C(R)V
|
| hts → tsh / C_V
|
| V → Vː / _”C[-glottal](R)V{ː,H} in “even numbered syllables only”
|
| V → Vː / _KRV “in the second syllable of a word”
|
| V → V[+high tone] / _$”V
|
| r → j / {e(ː),ẽ(ː),i(ː)}_V
|
| r → w / {o(ː),õ(ː)}_V
|
| t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.4 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Proto-Mohawk-Oneida | ts → hs / V_{t,k(ʷ)}
|
| 37.1.2.4.1 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Mohawk | V0 → ∅ / ”VC(C)(C)V0ʔ_C(C)(C)#
|
| ∅ → e / {#,V}s_n
|
| ∅ → e / {#,V}s_w
|
| — t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| — s → z / {#,V}_{V,R} ! R = j
|
| 37.1.2.4.2 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Oneida | ∅ → i / {V,t}n_k(ʷ)V
|
| — ∅ → e / C_{n,l}V(H)#
|
| — ∅ → o / C_wV(H)#
|
| — ∅ → i / C_jV(H)#
|
| t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| s → z / {#,V}_{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.5 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Seneca | r → ∅ / Vh_
|
| h → ∅ / V_V
|
| r → j / i(ː)_V
|
| r → w / {o(ː),õ(ː)}_V
|
| Vː → V / V_
|
| — t k(ʷ) → d ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.6 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Tuscarora | ˀt → ʔn / V_{V,w,j}
|
| ˀt → n / {#,C}_{V,w,j}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.2 Proto-Siouan-Iroquoian to Proto-Siouan | h → ∅ / V_C
|
| ʔ → ∅ / V_
|
| 37.2.1 Proto-Siouan to Catawba | p → b / V_V (*)
|
| 37.2.2 Proto-Siouan to Dakota | s → z / V_V
|
| k → ∅ / _x”V
|
| x → ʔ / ”Vk_
|
| 37.2.3 Proto-Siouan to Mandan | tʲ → s / _ʔV
|
| mn → mV0nV0 / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| sk → ʃ / _”V
|
| 37.2.4.1 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Čiwere | p → w / V_V
|
| k → ɡ / ”V_
|
| x → ∅ / k_”V
|
| 37.2.4.2 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Winnebago | p → b / V_V
|
| 37.2.5.1 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Crow | t → s / _V
|
| sk → tsk / _”V
|
| x → ∅ / k_”V
|
| 37.2.5.2 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Hidatsa | r → ∅ / {C,V}k_{C,V}
|
| mn → w / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| sk kx → tsk hk / _”V
|
| sk → hts / ”V_
|
| 37.2.6 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Dhegiha | k → ɡ / ”V_
|
| s → z / V_V
|
| L Lʲ → {ð,j} ʒ / _”V
|
| L → d / ”V_
|
| 37.2.6.1 Proto-Dhegiha to Kansa | N → S / V_V
|
| mn → bl / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 37.2.6.2 Proto-Dhegiha to Omaha-Ponca | p → b / V_V
|
| L → θ / _”V
|
| d → n / ”V_
|
| mn → bθ / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 37.2.6.3 Proto-Dhegiha to Osage | mn → bð / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| ʃ → s / ”V_k
|
| xk → (ʃ)k / _”V
|
| xk → ɡ / ”V_
|
| x → ʔ / k_”V
|
| 37.2.7 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Ohio-Valley | m → ∅ / {C,V}_n{C,V}
|
| 37.2.7.1 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Biloxi | p → w / V_V, apparently as a result of some dissimilation, as this appears to be an allophone of /p/ here, IIUC
|
| k → ∅ / ”Vs_
|
| k → ∅ / _x”V
|
| kx → xk / ”V_
|
| 37.2.7.2 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Ofo | sk → f / ”V_
|
| kx → sk / ”V_
|
| 37.2.7.3 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Tutelo | s → ʃ / ”V_k
|
| 38 Tai-Kadai | 38.1.1.3.1 Central Tai to Lungchow | V → Vː / _V
|
| 38.1.1.4 Proto-Tai to North Tai | l → j / p(ʰ),b_V
|
| 41 Trans-New Guinea | 41.1 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Apalɨ | p k ⁿd → β {h,k} nj / V_V
|
| 41.2 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Asmat | ᵐb ᵑɡ → p k / V_V
|
| 41.3 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Binandere | t → {r,s} / V_i
|
| ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ nj → {p,ᵐb} {ⁿd,z} k z / V_V
|
| 41.5.1.2 Proto-Gorokan to North Fore | N → ŋk / _V
|
| 41.5.1.3 Proto-Gorokan to South Fore | N → ʔ / _{V,S[- voice]}
|
| C → ∅ / VN_V
|
| 41.5.2.4 Proto-Kainantu to Usarufa | N → n / _V
|
| 41.7 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kâte | ᵐb ⁿd → {ᵐb,p} s / V_V
|
| 41.8 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kiwai | t ᵐb ⁿd {k,ᵑɡ} nj → {r,t} p {d,t} ɡ r / V_V
|
| 41.9 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Selepet | t ᵐb nj s → r {b,p} ⁿd {s,d} / V_V
|
| 41.10 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Telefol | ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ → b n k / V_V
|
| 41.11 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Middle Wahgi | ᵑɡ → {ᵑɡ,ŋ} / V_V
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1.1 Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic | ŋi → @ / V_
|
| nʲ → ni / #(C)i_V
|
| nʲ → in / V_V
|
| 42.1.1.1 Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish | j w → i U / V_{C,#}
|
| i → ∅ / {VC,ks}_ at the ends of a suffix
|
| 42.1.1.1.1 Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish | ið → j / ”V_V
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| ð → ∅ / ! ”V(X)_
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| ɣ → ʔ / VV0_V0 ! V0 = U
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| h → ∅ / V[-stress](X)_V
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| 42.1.2 Proto-Finnic to Livonian | ɑ → ə / VC(C)ɑC(C)_# when unstressed
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| LV → VL / {#,V,O}_
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| ∅ → ʔ / (C)V_CV
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| ə → ∅ / VC_CV
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| C → Cː / ʔ_V
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| a → aː / VC_
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| 43 Uto-Aztecan | 43.1 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Comanche | ∅ → h / Vu_k
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| s → ∅ / Vn_
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| 43.2 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Hopi | p → v / Vn_
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| 43.3 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Luiseño | p → v / {Vn,ɨ}_ (the latter “sometimes”)
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| 43.4 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Nahuatl | p → ∅ / {#,Vs}_
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| 43.5.1.1 Proto-Mono-Kawaiisu to Kawaiisu | hkʷ hʔ (h)S Sː → w ʔ S[+ voiced] S[- voiced - long] / V_V
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| ts → z / V_V
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| hts → z / V_i
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| h → ∅ / V_tsV
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| k → ∅ / V_wV
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| 43.6 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Tohono O’odham | p → w / {#,Vs}_
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| 44 Vasconic | 44.1 Proto-Vasconic to Aquitanian | n[+ fortis] → n(ː) / V_V
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| 44.2 Proto-Basque to Basque | Vn → Ṽ / _V (?)
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| n →m / u_V
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| n → ɲ / {i,ɪ}_V
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| n → h̃ / V_V
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| b → m / _VN
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| l → ɾ / V_V
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| ɾ → ∅ / V_V (Souletin)
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| F[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (sometimes, usually involving “compound surnames”?)
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| Ṽ → Vɲ / _V (not Souletin)
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| e → a / {V,C}_r (“mainly in the western dialects”)
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| ∅ → j / V_{N,s̺,s̻}S
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| ∅ → j / u_V (eastern dialects)
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| ∅ → m / o$_V (Orozko Biscayan)
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| ∅ → V / Vk_# (Zeberio Biscayan)
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| e → j / #_V (at least a few times?)
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| a → ∅ / _V
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| V → ∅ / Vj_
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| a → ∅ / V_# (Guipuscoan; happens because of reanalysis of the definite article)
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| eð (→ e ?) → j / #_V
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| 47 Most-Wanted Sound Changes | 47.2 List 2: Conditional or complex consonant changes | {t,k} → ∅ / V_V (Marathi) probably with voiced stops as intermediates, since they also became silent
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| p → w / V_V (Marathi)
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| b d ɡ → bː dː ɡː / V_V (some dialects of Italian; there may be more to it than this, since words like “repubblica” are in standard Italian and not just dialects)
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