| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic to Proto-Omotic | a → o / #Cw_{(d)l,s3}
|
| w → ∅ / #C_V, except _i(ː)
|
| 6.1.1 Proto-Omotic to North Omotic | e → i / #N_C
|
| e → i / #l_{P,C[+voiced]}
|
| e o → i u / #C_P
|
| e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C
|
| e o → i u / #(ʔ)_C$
|
| e(ː) → i(ː) / #C[+sibilant]_{d,n,r}
|
| Vː → V / #K[-voice]_C
|
| Vː → V / #C_C$ + $(V)C$ suffix
|
| N → ∅ / V_{C[+sibilant],p}
|
| 6.1.1.1 North Omotic to Bench | l → d / #_VC
|
| 6.1.1.3 North Omotic to Kafa | l → d / #_VC
|
| 6.1.1.5 North Omotic to Shekkacho | l → d / #_VC
|
| 6.1.1.7 North Omotic to Yemsa | l → n / #_VC
|
| 6.2.2 Proto-Erythrean to Proto-North Erythrean | V{j,w} → Vː / C_C
|
| in → ŋ / #_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.1 Proto-North Erythrean to Proto-Boreafrasian | ŋ → ∅ / #_CV
|
| 6.2.2.1.2 Proto-Boreafrasian to Egypto-Berber | l → ∅ / #{d,tʼ}_VC
|
| ɬ → s / #_VC
|
| f → p / #_V{Z,C[-voice],r}
|
| q → i / #_V{Z,C[+dental]}
|
| {h,ħ,q} → ʕ / C[+voice]_V
|
| q → ʔ / _C[+dental]
|
| r → ʔ / C_{t,w,j}# ! C = {ɡ,m,n,r,w,ʃ,x}
|
| l → j / #_iC ?
|
| l → r / #nV_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.3 Ancient Egyptian to Coptic | n → l / mV_C
|
| n → l / CV_m
|
| r → l / #(C)_c(C)# ?
|
| 6.2.2.1.4 Proto-Boreafrasian to Proto-Semitic | tlʼ → ɬ / _C[+sibilant]
|
| ɣ → ɡ / #_VCH
|
| w → ∅ / _C
|
| 6.2.2.1.6 Classical Arabic to Cypriot Arabic | j → ∅ / Ck_$
|
| i → a / Cˤ_{q,ɣ,ʕ}
|
| i → a / {q,ɣ,ʕ}_Cˤ
|
| a → i / _C(C), when stressed
|
| a → a / _C[+ dorsal]
|
| a → e / _(C)(C)i(ː)
|
| aːʔ → e / E(C)(C)_#
|
| aː → a / {Cˤ,w}_#
|
| 6.2.2.1.7 Classical Arabic to Egyptian Arabic | Vː → V / C_C{ː,C}V
|
| V → Vː / C_CV in U[-stress]
|
| {i,u} → ∅ / VC_CV when unstressed (short only)
|
| ∅ → e / CVCC_CVCV (applies across word boundaries)
|
| 6.2.2.1.8 Classical Arabic to Coastal Hadhrami Arabic | V[-long] → ∅ / #C_C, in some words
|
| 6.2.2.1.9 Classical Arabic to Wādı̄ Hadhrami Arabic | V[-long] → ∅ / #C_C (sporadic?)
|
| 6.2.2.1.10 Classical Arabic to Hassāniyya Arabic | V[-long] → ∅ / C_{C,#} (except for the feminine marker)
|
| — j w → i u / #_CV
|
| — j w → iː uː / #_CC
|
| 6.2.2.1.12 Classical Arabic to Eastern Libyan Arabic | ∅ → ə / C_CV(ː,V)CC
|
| 6.2.2.1.13 Classical Arabic to Western Libyan Arabic | ∅ → ə / CCV(ː,V)C_C
|
| 6.2.2.1.14 Classical Arabic to Moroccan Arabic | {u,ə} → ∅ / ! C_C(C)#
|
| 6.2.2.1.18 Proto-Semitic to Biblical Hebrew | — i u → e o / _C{$,#} (in verbs)
|
| — u → ɔ / _C{$,#}
|
| — u → ∅ / ! _Cː
|
| 6.2.2.1.19 Biblical Hebrew to Modern Israeli Hebrew | ə → ɛ / #R_C or when breaking up what would otherwise be a three-consonant cluster; in the case of two schwas, only the first one is dropped
|
| 7 Algonquian | 7.1 Proto-Algonquian to Kennebec River Abenaki | a → e / #C_OO
|
| w → ∅ / C_ ! C = K
|
| j → ∅ / _C
|
| 7.2 Proto-Algonquian to St. Francis Abenaki | V[- high - long] → ∅ / #C_OO
|
| w → ∅ / C_ ! C = K
|
| j → ∅ / C_
|
| 7.3 Proto-Algonquian to Proto-Arapaho-Atsina | W → ∅ / C_i(ː)
|
| θ → ʃ / C_
|
| θ h {s,m,n,r} → ʃ ∅ ʔ / _C
|
| W → j / C_
|
| s → h / {V,C}_
|
| r → h / C_
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _CC
|
| 7.3.1 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Arapaho | ({C,#}V)ʔ → ({C,#}Vː)∅ / _C
|
| i(ː) → u(ː) / o(ː)(C[-dental])(C[-dental])_
|
| ∅ → ʔ / CV[-long]_#
|
| o(ː) → e(ː) / Cj_ (sporadic)
|
| j → ∅ / C_
|
| 7.3.2 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Gros Ventre | ({C,#}V[-long])ʔ → ({C,#}Vː[+falling tone])∅ / _C
|
| 7.4 Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot | ∅ → x / _s ! _C{C,#}
|
| j → s / ! C_
|
| h → ∅ / ! _C
|
| w → ∅ / C_
|
| {jiː,ja,ahi} {owaː,awa,awe} awi {iːwa,eːwa,aji,aje,ani} → i oː o(ji) iː / C_C
|
| ∅ → i / #_jC
|
| ∅ → i / C_jV#
|
| {iː,ij,j} → j / C_B
|
| w → ∅ / {a,o}_iC
|
| on → u / _iC
|
| 7.6 Proto-Algonquian to Northern East Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| wi → o / C_
|
| 7.7 Proto-Algonquian to Southern East Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| wi → o / C_
|
| 7.8 Proto-Algonquian to Plains Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| wi → o / C_
|
| 7.9 Proto-Algonquian to Swampy Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| wi → o / C_
|
| 7.10 Proto-Algonquian to Woods Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| wi → o / C_
|
| 7.11 Proto-Algonquian to Munsee Delaware | w → ∅ / m_C
|
| Cʷ → C / _ə{(C){p,kʷ},m,w}
|
| j → ∅ / C_
|
| ʔ → h / _C ! C = l, or when reduplicated
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _hC
|
| ə[+weak] → ∅ / #_C
|
| ə[+weak] → ∅ / _C[+voiced] (sporadic)
|
| ə → i / _hC
|
| 7.12 Proto-Algonquian to Menominee | we je → o i / _C
|
| e → i / #(C)_ ! _H
|
| {w,j} → ∅ / C_#
|
| C → ∅ / C_#
|
| wi(ː) → o(ː) / C_w
|
| Vː → V[-long] / CC(G)_C{V,#} “[i.e., when following a cluster but not followed by a cluster. Only applies ‘after the first long vowel of a nonglottal word, and everywhere in a glottal word’]”
|
| V → Vː / _CC in even syllables
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _C{V,#} in even syllables; “does not apply in the second syllable of a non-glottal word”
|
| {wiː,jiː,weː,jeː,wæː,jæː} {wi,ji,we,je,wæ,jæ} → iː i / C_
|
| wa ja → uə̯ iə̯ / C_
|
| 7.13 Proto-Algonquian to Miami-Illinois | mV[-long] → ∅ / #_{ʰC,s,ʃ} (allophonic, “optional”)
|
| {θ,ʃ,tʃ,ç,x,ʔ} → h / _C
|
| 7.14 Proto-Algonquian to Mi’kmaq | tʃ → ʃ / ! C_
|
| {ʔ,h,N} → ∅ / _C
|
| 7.15 Proto-Algonquian to Ojibwe | {j,w}V[-long] → ∅ / C_# in disyllables with Vː or in tri(-plus-)syllables
|
| jeː → iː / C_
|
| ja → iː / C_C
|
| j → ∅ / C_
|
| 7.16 Proto-Algonquian to Piscataway | ʔ → h / _C
|
| 7.17 Proto-Algonquian to Shawnee | e → i / #(C)_ “(but remains e in a few cases?)”
|
| j → ∅ / C_i(ː)
|
| je → i / C_
|
| V[-long] → ∅ / C_ʔC
|
| Vː → V[-long] / _{ʔC,ʃp,ʃk,hV}
|
| ʔ → ∅ / C{v,l,s}_C
|
| ʔ → ∅ / _CC
|
| ∅ → ʔ / C{v,d}_{ʃp,ʃk,hV}
|
| ∅ → i / #C_jVː “(for some speakers)”
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.1 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Japonic | a → ə / _Ce
|
| a → i / _Ci
|
| a → u / _Cu
|
| V → a / _Ca
|
| u → a / P_Ce
|
| {a,e,o,æ} i u y ø → ə i ua {u,ə} {ə,u} / _Ce
|
| {a,æ,e,ø,i,y} o → i u / _Ci
|
| e i {o,u} æ ø y → {ə,a} {i,ə} ə a {ə,u} {u,ə} / _Co
|
| V → u / _Cu
|
| 8.2 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Korean | {tʰ,d} {k,ɡ} → r {h,∅} / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 8.3 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Mongolic | a → {a,i} / _Ce
|
| a → {a,e} / _Ci
|
| a → {a,i,e} / _Co
|
| a → {a,o,u} / _Cu
|
| e o u æ ø y → {a,e} {o,u} {a,o,u a {a,o,u} {o,u,i} / _Ca
|
| a e i o u æ ø y → {a,i} {e,ja} {e,i} {ø,y,o} {o,u,y} {i,a,e} {e,ø} {ø,y,o,u} / _Ce
|
| i → e / P_Ci
|
| a e u æ ø y → {a,e} {e,i} {y,ø} {i,e} {i,e,ø} {ø,y,o,u} / _Ci
|
| e → {y,ø} / P_Co
|
| e → {y,ø} / C_Po
|
| e → o / P_Cu
|
| e → o / C_Pu
|
| a e o i æ ø y → {a,i,e} {a,e} u {o,u} e {ø,y,o,u} {o,u} / _Co
|
| a e {o,u} æ ø y → {a,o,u} {e,a} {o,u} {a,o,u} {e,i,u} {i,o,u,y,ø} / _Cu
|
| ɡ → h / ! {C,V}_h
|
| kʰ → ɡ / {C,V}_h
|
| 8.4 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Tungusic | o → {o,u} / _CV
|
| æ → i / {s,ʃ,x}_Ca
|
| {u,ø,y} æ → {o,u} ia / _Ca
|
| y → u / P_C{e,i}
|
| æ ø → i {o,u} / _Ce
|
| æ → i / {s,ʃ,x}_Ci
|
| æ ø y → ia {o,u} i / _Ci
|
| {u,æ} ø → {o,u} i / _Co
|
| ø → i / {s,ʃ,x}_Cu
|
| {u,æ,y} ø → {o,u} ia / _Cu
|
| 8.5 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Turkic | a ø → {a,ʌ} a / P_Ca
|
| a e i u æ ø y → a {a,ʌ,e} {ɯ,i} {u,o} {ia,ja,ɛ} {ia,ja} ɯ / _Ca
|
| e → ja / #_C{e,i}
|
| ø → ʌ / P_Ce
|
| a {e,i} o u æ ø y → {ɛ,a} ɛ {ø,o} {y,u} {ia,ja,ɛ} {ia,ja} {y,ø} / _Ci
|
| æ → a / P_Co
|
| æ → ʌ / P_Cu
|
| a e i æ ø y → {o,ja,aj} {ʌ,ɜ} ɯ {ia,ja} {o,u} {u,o} / _Co
|
| e i æ ø y → {ɛ,a,ʌ} {ɯ,i} {e,a} {u,o} ɯ / _Cu
|
| 9 Austroasiatic | 9.1.2.1 Middle Vietnamese to Hanoi Vietnamese | ɛ → a / _C[+palatal]
|
| 9.1.2.2 Middle Vietnamese to Saigon Vietnamese | ɛ → a / _C[+palatal]
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.1.2.7 Proto-Philippine to Proto-Kalamian | e → u / _Cu
|
| e → i / _Ci
|
| e → u / uC_
|
| e → a / _C[- voice]#
|
| 10.1.2.7.1 Proto-Kalamian to Agutaynen | O[- voice] → ʔ / _C
|
| 10.1.2.7.2 Proto-Kalamian to Karamiananen | {t,k} q → ʔ k / _C
|
| s → ʔ / _C
|
| 10.1.2.7.3 Proto-Kalamian to Kalamian Tagbanwa | {t,k,q,s} → k / _C
|
| 10.2.1 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Chamic | a → aː / _C# (sometimes)
|
| 10.2.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Chamorro | ə → ∅ / VC_CV
|
| V → ∅ / VC_CV (sporadic)
|
| i u → e o / _C{C,#}
|
| l → d / _{C,#}
|
| O → O[-voiced] / _{C,#}
|
| 10.2.3.1 Proto-Malayic to (Standard) Malay | V → ə / _(C…)UU#
|
| ə → a / _(C…)#
|
| 10.2.4.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Madurese | V → Vː / ə(C…?)_
|
| 10.2.5 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Palauan | ∅ → ə / C_C “(for certain consonant combinations, which the paper doesn’t specify)”
|
| j → ∅ / C_i
|
| ʀ → r / _C[+dental]
|
| ɟ → k / _C#
|
| ŋ → ∅ / C_#
|
| 10.2.6.1 Proto-North Sarawak to Kiput | V[+stress] → Vː / _C# ! V = ə and/or C = h “(applies to diphthongal nuclei as well a[s] monophthongs)”
|
| i u → ɛ ɔ / _C# ! _P (sporadic)
|
| a → i / O[+voiced]…_(C)# “(blocked if there was an intervening nasal, and sometimes if there was an intervening voiceless stop or liquid)”
|
| ə → {ə,a} / _C# “(free variants)”
|
| (C)V → ∅ / #_C… “(irregular)”
|
| 10.2.6.2 Proto-North Sarawak to Proto-Kenyah | ʀ →h / V_V(C)#
|
| s → t / _VsVC
|
| CV → ∅ / _NCVC “(in reduplications)”
|
| 10.2.6.2.1 Proto-Kenyah to Òma Lóngh | u → ɯ / _(C)# ! _ʔ#
|
| i u → e o / _CV[+close-mid](C)# “(iə is treated as close mid for this change)”
|
| i u → ɛ ɔ / _CV[+open-mid](C)#
|
| i u → e o / _Cɯ#
|
| i u → əj əw / _V(C)#
|
| 10.2.6.3 Proto-Malayic to Minangkabau | a → o / _(C…)#
|
| — ə → a / _(C…)# (eventually spread to everywhere)
|
| 10.3.2 Proto-Oceanic to Hiw | ”V[+ high(er)] → ∅ / _CV
|
| ”V → ə / _CV
|
| a → e / _CV[+ mid] (sporadic)
|
| a → e / _Ci (sporadic)
|
| u → ʉ / ! Cw_
|
| 10.3.3 Proto-Oceanic to Lemerig | V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| V → ∅ / CVC_C”V
|
| 10.3.4 Proto-Oceanic to Mwotlap | o e i → ɔ ɛ ɪ / C_V[- high]
|
| V[- high] → ∅ / {ɔ,ɛ,ɪ}C_
|
| u a → ʊ ɛ / _CV[+ high]
|
| V → ∅ / (C)V_VC”V
|
| b β d → m p n / _{C,#}
|
| kpʷ → k / _C (sporadic)
|
| 10.3.5 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-New Caledonia | V → ∅ / _C”V
|
| 10.3.5.1 Proto-New Caledonia to Caaàc | V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
|
| 10.3.5.5 Proto-New Caledonia to Nyelâyu | V → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)_#
|
| 10.3.7 Proto-Oceanic to Shark Bay | ”a → i / _CV[- high]
|
| ”a → e / _CV[+ high]
|
| V → e / C_# ! C = j
|
| 10.3.11 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Southern Vanuatu | a → e / _(C)i
|
| a → ə / _Ca
|
| 10.3.11.1 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Anejom | ai → i / _C
|
| 10.3.11.2 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Proto-Erromango | a → i / _CV[+ high]
|
| 10.3.11.2.1 Proto-Erromango to Sye | b d ɡ → p t k / {#,C}_
|
| s → ∅ / _C (occasionally blocked)
|
| 10.3.11.2.2 Proto-Erromango to Ura | b d ɡ → m n ŋ / _C
|
| 10.3.11.3 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Proto-Tanna | a → o / _{P,Cu}
|
| a → e / _Ci
|
| a → ə / _Ca
|
| 10.3.11.3.1 Proto-Tanna to Kwamera | u → {e,i} / _Cu
|
| 10.3.11.3.4 Proto-Tanna to Southwest Tanna | u → {e,i} / _Cu
|
| 10.3.12 Proto-Oceanic to Vera’a | V → ∅ / #_C”V
|
| V → ∅ / CVC_C”V
|
| b d → m n / _{C,#}
|
| 10.4.1 Proto-Micronesian to Marshallese | K → Kʷ / _{C[+round],V[+round]}
|
| V[+high] → ɘ / _C[-high]
|
| V[+mid] → ɘ / _C[+high] when stressed
|
| V → ∅ / ”VC_
|
| f → ∅ / #_{C[-low],V[-low]}
|
| f → ɰ / #_aCo
|
| ∅ → ɰ / #_aC[-low]
|
| ∅ → j / #_{aC[+low],V[-back],C[-back]}
|
| ∅ → w / #_{C[+round],V[+round]}
|
| 10.5.2 Proto-Ongan to Onge | ∅ → e / C_#
|
| 11 Northeast Caucasian | 11.3 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Khinalug | r → n / _C
|
| 14 Elamo-Dravidian | 14.1 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Proto-Dravidian | t → ∅ / #_VrC
|
| s → ∅ / C_V
|
| s → ∅ / V_C
|
| 14.2 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Achaemanid Elamite | e → {e,i} / #C_C
|
| r̀ → r / V_{V,C}
|
| 14.3.1 Standard Tamil to Colloquial Tamil | i u → e o / _Ca
|
| l ɭ → lːʉ ɭːʉ / _#(C)V[-long]
|
| i(ː) e(ː) → u(ː) o(ː) / {m,v,p}_C̣
|
| o e → u i / _C{u,i} “(highly sporadic)”
|
| 15 Eskimo-Aleut | 15.2.1 Proto-Eskimo to Barrow Iñupiaq | m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[-nasal]
|
| l̥ → t / _C
|
| v ɣ ʁ → p k q / _C (unless C = one of /l dʒ m n ŋ)
|
| 15.2.2 Proto-Eskimo to Greenlandic Iñupiaq | m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[-nasal]
|
| l̥ → ʁ / _C
|
| v ɣ ʁ → p k q / _C (except where C = /l dʒ m n ŋ/)
|
| 15.2.3 Proto-Eskimo to Mackenzie Iñupiaq | m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[-nasal]
|
| l̥ → t / _C
|
| 15.2.4 Proto-Eskimo to Wales Iñupiaq | m n ŋ → v t ɣ / _C[+nasal]
|
| l̥ → t / C_
|
| v ɣ ʁ → p k q / _C (except if C = /l dʒ m n ŋ/)
|
| 15.2.5 Proto-Eskimo to Kuskokwim Yup’ik | i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
|
| 15.2.6 Proto-Eskimo to Nunivak Yup’ik | i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
|
| i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
|
| 15.2.7 Proto-Eskimo to Siberian Yup’ik | i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
|
| 15.2.8 Proto-Eskimo to Unaaliq Yup’ik | i → ∅ / #C[+dental]_C[+dental]V
|
| a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
|
| i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
|
| 16 Extended West Papuan | 16.1.1 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Nafri | e → i / _(C)i
|
| e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
|
| ə → o / _(C)o
|
| ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
|
| a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 16.1.2 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Central Sentani | e → i / _(C)i
|
| e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
|
| ə → o / _(C)o
|
| ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
|
| a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 16.1.3 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Eastern Sentani | e → i / _(C)i
|
| e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
|
| ə → o / _(C)o
|
| ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
|
| a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 16.1.4 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Western Sentani | e → i / _(C)i
|
| e → ə / _C{a,ə,u} (seems to have become a in a few instances)
|
| ə → o / _(C)o
|
| ə → e / _{C[+palatal],E}
|
| a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Gheg Albanian | ɡ́(ʱ) → d / %_C[+sibilant]
|
| Vn → V[+nasal] / _C?
|
| 17.1.2 Proto-Indo-European to Tosk Albanian | ɡ́(ʱ) → d / %_C[+sibilant]
|
| n → ∅ / V_C?
|
| 17.2.3 Common Anatolian to Lycian | w → b / C_
|
| 17.2.4 Common Anatolian to Lydian | j → ∅ / C_
|
| 17.3.1 Proto-Indo-European to Artsakh Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.2 Proto-Indo-European to Erevan Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.3 Proto-Indo-European to Istanbul Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.4 Proto-Indo-European to Kharpert Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.5 Proto-Indo-European to Sebastia Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.6 Proto-Indo-European to Southeast Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.3.7 Proto-Indo-European to Southwest Armenian | l → ɫ / {C,lV}_
|
| V → (?) / _(C)#
|
| 17.5 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic | — H → a / C_C ! #_
|
| — ∅ → a / CR_HC
|
| — H → ∅ / V_C when pretonic
|
| — H → a / #R_C
|
| — h → ∅ / C_
|
| — ∅ → a / C_RC
|
| — Vː → V[-long] / _RC
|
| 17.5.1 Proto-Indo-European to Old Irish | r̩ l̩ → {ra,ar} {la,al} / _{s,CC,V,#} (the results are unpredictable)
|
| ɡʷ → b / C_V
|
| oː → uː / _(C…)#
|
| — e → i / _(C…)#
|
| — o → a / _{(C…),u}#
|
| — i u → e o / _C(…C){a(ː),e(ː),o(ː)}
|
| — e o → i u / _C(…C){H,j}
|
| w → ∅ / {#,C}C_
|
| V → ∅ / C_# when unstressed ! C = j
|
| eː → ia / _{#,Cʲ} when stressed; “ai and oi remain, but are written as <ae ai oe oi> seemingly randomly”
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | V → ə / _(C)#, also in proclitics
|
| i u → e o / _Ca
|
| a o → ei {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| a → {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| V → ɨ / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| {a,o} → e / _(C…)i(ː)
|
| {a,e,o} → ei / _(C…)j
|
| ɣ → i / _C
|
| ɣ → i / C_V
|
| ɔ → ə / #_sC
|
| 17.7 Proto-Indo-European to Common Germanic | {i,j} {u,w} → j w / V[+short]C_
|
| 17.7.1 Common Germanic to Gothic | — V[- long] → ∅ / U_C# ! V = u
|
| w → u̯ / V[- long]_{#,C}
|
| j → i / C_# “after the loss of a final vowel or syllable”
|
| iji → iː / U[- stress](C…)_
|
| m → β / C[- voiced]_n, when medial
|
| m → ɸ / C[+ voiced]_n, when medial
|
| nː → n / _C ! _j
|
| ð → d / C[+ voiced]_
|
| ɣ → ɡ / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.2 Old English to Kentish Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.3 Old English to Midlands Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.4 Midlands Middle English to Early Modern English | a ɑ {ɛ,ɪ,ɤ} → ɑː ɔː ɜː / _ɹ{C,#}
|
| 17.7.2.1.5 Early Modern English to American English | w → ∅ / C_ɹ for some C (toward(s), quart(er), sword)
|
| 17.7.2.1.8 Old English to Northern Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.9 Early Northern Middle English to Scots | — a → {ɛ,e} / _rC
|
| — æ → ɛ / _C[+alveolar]
|
| 17.7.2.1.10 Old English to Scots | N → ∅ / _C ! _%C
|
| ð → ∅ / {l,r,V}_C
|
| 17.7.2.1.11 Scots to Falkirk Scots | V → Ṽː / _nC “(works across word boundaries)”
|
| n → ∅ / V_C (in words of more than one syllable)
|
| k → ç / V_# ! _C “(sometimes)”; “(except when phonemic)”
|
| ɡ → ʝ / V_# ! _C “(most times)”
|
| p b → ɸ β / {#,V}_ ! _C
|
| 17.7.2.1.12 Old English to Southern Middle English | Vː → V[-long] / _C{ː,C} ! _st{#,V} or when preceding a cluster which had triggered a vowel to become long in Old English; the book gives “Christ” vs. “Christmas” as an example
|
| ɣ → w / C_V
|
| 17.7.2.1.13 Middle English to Yola | C → ∅ / C_%
|
| 17.7.2.2 West Germanic to Old Low Franconian | h → ∅ / #_C
|
| jan → en / CC_#
|
| j → ∅ / CC_
|
| ai u → ei ʏ / _(C…){i(ː),j} (short only; in the case of [ʏ] at least this was not yet phonemic)
|
| a → ɛ / _(C…){i(ː),j} (conjectured based on date from the “Germanic umlaut” article)
|
| 17.7.2.2.1 Old Low Franconian to Middle Dutch | {ol,al} {ar,er} or → ɔu aːr oːr / _C[+dental]
|
| 17.7.2.3 Middle High German to Standard German | aː → oː / _{N,C[+ dental],P,h} (sporadic?)
|
| aː → oː / {N,C[+ dental],P,h}_ (sporadic?)
|
| e(ː) i → ø(ː) y / _C[+ affricate]
|
| Vː → V[- long] / _CC (some exceptions; the change was more common around _xt and _rC)
|
| Vː → V[- long] / _%Cə{r,l,n}# (some exceptions)
|
| 17.7.2.4 High German Cosonant Shift and Umlaut | a u o → e y ø / _(C…){i(ː),j}
|
| 17.7.2.5 West Germanic to Old Low German | v → f / _C ! _d
|
| b d → p t / _C[-voice]
|
| 17.7.3 Common Germanic to Proto-Norse | wi → u / Ci_C
|
| j → i / C_
|
| (w)u(ː) i(ː) → (w)o(ː) e(ː) / _(C)(C)a ! CC = NC or one C = {ʀ,j}
|
| 17.7.3.1 Proto-Norse to Old Norse | i → ɪ / _NS[- voice] ! _NS(C){o,i,j}
|
| e → i / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C){i,j}
|
| a → ∅ / C(C)_{ʀ,s,t,θ}#
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ y yː / _(C)(C)(C)j
|
| ʀ → r / C_n
|
| w → ∅ / C_o
|
| a → ∅ / CC_U#
|
| a(ː) ae → o(ː) ɒø / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C)u
|
| u {o,ɒ} a → y ø æ / _(C)(C)(C)i
|
| {B,E} → ∅ / CC_{ʀ,s,t,θ}# ! B = ɒ
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)i
|
| {B,E} → ∅ / CC_U# ! B = ɒ
|
| {u,we,wi} {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)i
|
| e → jɒ / _(C)(C)(C)u ! {{h,k,ŋ}n,w,v,l,r}_
|
| e → ja / _(C)(C)(C)u ! {{h,k,ŋ}n,w,v,l,r}_
|
| au {ai,ey,ei} æ{y,i} øy Vː → o e æ ø V / #(C)(C)(C)_CC
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)j
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / #(C)(C)_ʀ
|
| nː lː rː sː → n l r s / C_
|
| lː nː → l n / C_#
|
| V{θ,ð} → Vː / #(C)(C)(C)_{l,r}
|
| ai → aː / _h{C,V}
|
| θ f → ð v / {V,C[+ voiced]}_{V,C[+ voiced]}
|
| h → ∅ / C_t
|
| eː{Bː,i(ː)} → joː / _C[+ alveolar]#
|
| eː j → e ∅ / Cw_
|
| 17.7.3.1.1 Old Norse to Early Icelandic | ∅ → u / C_r#
|
| V → Vː / _(C)#, in monosyllables
|
| V → Vː / ! _CCV, in polysyllables
|
| 17.7.3.1.2 Old Norse to Orkney Norn | u a e eː → ʌ ɑ ɪ ɛ / _Cː
|
| u → ʌ / _C{ː,CC}
|
| uː → øː / _CC
|
| o a → ø ɛ / _(C)(C)i
|
| o → ø / _Cr
|
| oː → øː / _(C)(C)#
|
| ɒ → ɔ / _C(ː)C
|
| ɒ → {ɛ,e} / _CːV (V can be a syllabic consonant)
|
| ɒ → ɪ / _rC
|
| a → ɔ / _{l,nd}C
|
| œ → ɛː / _CC
|
| ei → eː / _C(ː,V)# (V can be a syllabic consonant)
|
| i → ɪ / _CC
|
| 17.7.3.1.3 Old Norse to Shetland Norn | n l → ɲ ʎ / _C
|
| {u,o}(ː) a aː {ɒ,œ,y} e i(ː) → {o,ɔ}(i) æ(i) {ɔ,ɒ}(i) {o,ɔ}(i) {æ,e} / _{Ḱ,Cʲ}
|
| u → {o,ɒ} / _CC
|
| ɒ → ɛ / _Cː
|
| a → ∅ / C[+ dental/alveolar]_u
|
| æ → e / ! _{Ḱ,Cʲ}
|
| 17.8.1 Proto-Indo-European to Aeolian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.2 Proto-Indo-European to Attic Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| eː → iː / _C
|
| 17.8.3 Proto-Indo-European to Boeotian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.4 Proto-Indo-European to Coan Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.5 Proto-Indo-European to Cretan Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.6 Proto-Indo-European to Doric Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.7 Proto-Indo-European to Elian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.8 Proto-Indo-European to Ionic Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.9 Proto-Indo-European to Laconian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.8.10 Proto-Indo-European to Mycenaean Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| 17.10 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian | o → aː / _CV, “does not affect o2 < eh3”
|
| 17.10.1 Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Indo-Aryan | VH → Vː / _{C,#}
|
| R̊H → {u,i}ːR / _C
|
| t d(ʱ) n → ʈ ɖ(ʱ) ɳ / C̣_ ! _r
|
| s t d(ʱ) n → ʂ ʈ ɖ(ʱ) ɳ / _C̣
|
| 17.10.1.1 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Central Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| 17.10.1.2 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Eastern Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| 17.10.1.3 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Northwestern Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| 17.10.1.4 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Western Middle Indo-Aryan | C(C) → ∅ / C_#
|
| 17.10.1.5 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Vedic Sanskrit | {s,ʂ} → h / _#C[- voice]
|
| {s,ʂ} → r / _#C[+ voice]
|
| cʰː → cʰ / C_
|
| 17.11 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Slavic | {m̩,n̩} → {ẽ,õ} / _C$
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | ɛ ɛ̃ ɛː → ɔ ɔ̃ a / _C[-palatalized +dental] (also sporadically before plain non-dentals)
|
| ьl → ɫu / C[+dental]_
|
| ьl → ɛɫ / P_C[+dental -palatalized]
|
| ь → aː / r_C[+dental -palatalized]
|
| a ɛ i ɔ u ɨ ã → aː ɛː iː ɔː uː ɨː ãː / _{C/U}[+voiced][lost yer] (i.e., a voiced consonant or a cluster with one)
|
| {i,ɨ} → ɛ / _C[+rhotic]
|
| r̝ → ʂ / C[-voiced]_
|
| r̝ → ʂ / _C[+voiced]
|
| Cʲ → C / _C[+dental] with developments of yers in ablaut environments
|
| OR → RO / V_C
|
| RO → OR / C_V
|
| Cv → vC / _C
|
| v r̝ → f r̥ / C[-voiced]_
|
| v r̝ → f r̥ / _{C[-voiced],#}
|
| {z,s,ʂ} → ∅ / _sC
|
| C[+sibilant]P → C[+alveolopalatal] / _C[+coronal]
|
| w → ∅ / C_#
|
| w → ∅ / C_C (sporadic)
|
| Pʲ → P / _C
|
| ɕ ʑ → s z / _C (sometimes)
|
| 17.12.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Latin | V → i / %(C)(C)_% when unstressed
|
| V → o / %(C)(C)V_% when unstressed
|
| V → e / %(C)(C)_%r when unstressed (with some exceptions)
|
| V → {i,u} / %(C)(C)_%P when unstressed
|
| a o → e u / %(C)(C)_C(C)% when unstressed
|
| a → e → i / %(C)(C)_ŋ when unstressed
|
| a → e → u / %(C)(C)_ɫ when unstressed
|
| e → u / %(C)(C)_ɫ when unstressed
|
| ai → ei → iː / %(C)(C)_ when unstressed
|
| ei oi ou → iː eː uː / %(C)(C)_ when unstressed
|
| a → e / _C(C)#
|
| o → u / _C(C)# ! {u,w}_
|
| {ai,ei,oi} → ei → iː / _(C)(C)#
|
| j → i / C_
|
| t → ∅ / C_#
|
| d → ∅ / C_
|
| kʷ → ∅ / C_C
|
| kʷ → k / _{o,i,C}
|
| s → z / _C[+voiced]
|
| V → Vː / _zC[+voiced]
|
| z → ∅ / _C[+voiced]
|
| Vː → V / _C(C)# “(irregular: often before -m, -t, -nt, but never before ?s)”
|
| 17.12.1.1.1 Classical Latin vs. Vulgar Latin | {e,i} → j / C_V when unstressed
|
| 17.12.1.1.2 Latin to Catalan | V → ∅ / ”V%C_L(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%L_C(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%s_t(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| ∅ → e / #_sC
|
| l → ∅ / {o,u}_CV
|
| l → w / V_CV (“although l was usually restored later”)
|
| tj → s / C_
|
| ∅ → {e,o} / CL_#
|
| V → ∅ / ”V%_(C)(C)V(C)# (“irregular; e is kept before n”)
|
| {i,e(ː),ae} → ∅ / _(C)#
|
| kʷ → k / C_V
|
| ɡʷ → ɡ / C_{i,e}
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / C_a
|
| C → ∅ / C1_C2 ! C2 = L
|
| ɔ → o / _N$C
|
| ɛ → e / ! _{rː,l,rC[-labial],nr} or _ ? w#
|
| 17.12.1.1.3 Latin to French | — u → ∅ / CC_V
|
| — V → ”V / _C*”{i,e}V
|
| è → iɛ / _C#
|
| C → ∅ / C1_C2 ! C2 = {r,l}
|
| {k,ɡ} → j / _{a,C}
|
| ∅ → e / #_sC
|
| ɛ ɔ → iɛ uɛ / _{Cj,jC}
|
| ɛ → ɛa / _l{C,#}
|
| l → u / _{C,#}
|
| e → ə / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+open]
|
| e → ɛ / #(C…)_(%…)” in U[+closed] or _V (?)
|
| ɛ → i / _C(C…)i#
|
| V → ə / _{CC,tʃ,dʒ} ! _{nt,nɡ,mp,rt,rd}
|
| s → ∅ / _C
|
| v → ∅ / _C
|
| v → ∅ / C_
|
| ɲ → in / _{C,#}
|
| {n,m} → ∅ / C_#
|
| 17.12.1.1.4 Vulgar Latin to Italian | l → j / #C_
|
| 17.12.1.1.5 Latin to Portuguese | V → ∅ / _L(C)(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| ɫ → w / V_Ca
|
| V → a / _{n,r}(C)V(C)# (irregular)
|
| V → V[+nas] / _N$C when stressed
|
| N → ∅ / V[+nas]_$C ! C = S
|
| e → i / _(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| s → ʃ / V_C[-voiced]V
|
| s → ʒ / V_C[+voiced]V
|
| kʷ → k / VC_{a,i,e}
|
| ɡʷ → ɡw / C_a
|
| tj → s / C_V
|
| C → ∅ / C1_C2 ! C2 = L
|
| {e,i} → ∅ / {L,N}_(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| o → ∅ / _(C)(C)V(C)#
|
| 17.12.1.1.6 Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal | — e → i / _(C…)i{C(C…)V,#}
|
| — au → a / _(C…)u
|
| — e → i / _(C…)i(C…)#
|
| — V → ∅ / R_(C…)
|
| ɡ → ∅ / V_(VC…)”V
|
| ∅ → i / #_sC
|
| β → w / V_C
|
| w → ∅ / C_B (when from earlier B?)
|
| k → ∅ / _s{C,#} (the latter in polysyllables only)
|
| i → e / #_sC
|
| β → {∅,f} / C_(s)# (the latter is rare)
|
| tʃ → i / _C
|
| tʃ → i / C_
|
| ð → i / C_
|
| ð → i / _C ! _s#
|
| j → i / _C
|
| 17.12.1.1.8 Latin to Romanian | u → ∅ / CC_V
|
| V → ”V / _(C…)”{i,e}V
|
| s → i / #(C…)V_#
|
| e → a / i_(C…){a,e}#
|
| a → e / C[+palatal]_#
|
| e → ə / ”U…P_(C…)V# ! V = i
|
| a → a / #(C…)V…C[+palatal]_…”U
|
| a o → ə u / #(C…)V…_…”U
|
| e → i / #(C…)V…_n…”U
|
| e → ə / #(C…)V…{t,d,n}_…”U
|
| e → ə / P”_(C…)B
|
| o → u / #C…_…”U
|
| 17.12.1.1.9 Latin to Sardinian | e → i / C_V
|
| h → ∅ / {#,C}_
|
| r → l / _C (sporadic)
|
| l → r / C_ (sporadic)
|
| 17.12.1.1.10 Vulgar Latin to Spanish | V → ∅ / C_{r,l} when unstressed and not at a word boundary
|
| V → ∅ / {r,l}_C when unstressed and not at a word boundary
|
| V → ∅ / C_s when unstressed and not at a word boundary (sporadic)
|
| V → ∅ / s_C when unstressed and not at a word boundary (sporadic)
|
| — e → i / _Cj ! C = p
|
| — ɛ ɔ u → e o u / _(C)j
|
| i u → e o / _(C)#
|
| Vɾ → ɾV / C_#
|
| b → u / _C
|
| l → u / _C (sometimes)
|
| 17.13 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Tocharian | Ch → C / _(V)Ch
|
| Kʷ → K / _{C,o,a} ! C = syllabic
|
| n̩ → ə → ∅ / C_#
|
| R H → uR ɨ / C_{C,#} when syllabic
|
| R Hn̩ → ɛR ɨn / #_C
|
| 18 Je-Tupı́-Carib | 18.1.1 Pre-Bakairi to Eastern Bakairi | VNV → ṼṼ / ! _(C)#
|
| ʔ → ∅ / _C[+ fricative - voiced]
|
| 18.2.1 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Proto-Jê | VS → r / C_V
|
| ə → ∅ / C_CV (not sure if this happened all the time or not)
|
| 18.3.1 Proto-Tuparí to Makuráp | h → ∅ / V_C
|
| 18.3.2 Proto-Tuparí to Mekens | h → ∅ / V_C
|
| 18.3.4 Proto-Tuparí to Wayoró | h → ∅ / V_C
|
| 18.4.1 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Akwára | o → a / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| a → o / ! Cw_
|
| ã → a / Cw_
|
| 18.4.2 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Cocama | o → u(a) / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| iʔ uʔ → j w / C_V
|
| 18.4.3 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guajajara | o → u / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| 18.4.6 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Kamayurá | ã → a / Cw_
|
| 18.4.10 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Urubu | u → o / ! o(C…)_(C…)#
|
| 20 Khoisan | 20.2.1 Proto-Kx’a to ÇHoan | o → ∅ / a(C)_
|
| 20.2.2 Proto-Kx’a to Northwestern !Xun | o → a / _Ca
|
| a → ∅ / _(C)o
|
| 20.2.3 Proto-Kx’a to Southeastern !Xun | o → a / _Ca
|
| a → ∅ / _(C)o
|
| 21 Lakes Plain | 21.1 Proto-Lakes Plain to Proto-Far West | ∅ → echo vowel / C_CV
|
| 21.2.1 Proto-Tariku to Proto-Central Tariku | ∅ → echo vowel / C_CV
|
| iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.1 Proto-East Tariku to Biritai | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.2 Proto-East Tariku to Doutai | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| ɾ → ∅ / ! _C
|
| 21.2.2.3 Proto-East Tariku to Eritai | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| iC → iC~i / _{C,#} (not sure how this plays in with the change mentioned earlier about extra-high vowels; I must have misread something)
|
| 21.2.2.4 Proto-East Tariku to Kai | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.5 Proto-East Tariku to Obokuitai | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.6 Proto-East Tariku to Sikaritai | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 21.2.2.7 Proto-East Tariku to Waritai | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| ɾ → ∅ / ! C_
|
| 21.2.3 Proto-Tariku to Proto-West Tariku | iC uC → î û / _{C,#}
|
| 23 Macro-Chibchan | 23.1.1.1.1 Proto-Chibchan to Arhuaco | i → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.2 Proto-Chibchan to Chibcha | a → i / _Ci
|
| u → o / _Ca
|
| i → u / _(C)u
|
| i → a / _(C)a
|
| i → e / _(C)e
|
| a {e,i} → i ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.3 Proto-Chibchan to Kogi | j → i / C(V)_
|
| 23.1.1.1.4 Proto-Chibchan to Marocacero | i → ə / oC_
|
| i → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.5 Proto-Chibchan to Motilón | a → i / iC_
|
| {u,i} → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| e → u / uC_
|
| e → ∅ / u_C
|
| 23.1.1.1.6 Proto-Chibchan to Tunebo | s → h / _(V)C
|
| i → a / _Ca
|
| {a,i} → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| i → ∅ / _(C)”V
|
| e → ∅ / u_C
|
| 24 Macro-Pama-Nyungan | 24.1.2 Proto-Paman to AwÅtim | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| ∅ → j / #(C)iː(C)_V ! _i
|
| ∅ → w / #(C)uː(C)_V ! _u
|
| ∅ → a / #(C)aː(C)_V ! _a
|
| 24.1.3 Proto-Paman to LinÅitiÉ£ | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| 24.1.6 Proto-Paman to Uraði | (N)S → F / #(C)V_
|
| 24.1.7 Proto-Paman to Yinwum | a → i / #C[+palatal]V[-long]C_
|
| i → e / #(C)aC[-palatal]_
|
| ∅ → j / #iː(C)_a
|
| ∅ → w / #uː(C)_a
|
| 27 Mayan | 27.5 Proto-Mayan to Kaqchikel-Tz’utujil | ɓ w → ʔ j / VCV_#
|
| 28 Muskogean | 28 Muskogean | k → ∅ / V_C ! penult
|
| V → V̂ː / _Cko, ko lost?
|
| 28.1.1 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Alabama | ts x → s h / _C
|
| 28.1.2 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Creek | V1kV2 → V2ː / #((C)V(C))(C)_#
|
| 28.1.4 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Korasati | ts → s / _C
|
| 28.1.5 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Mikasuri | tʃ → s / _C ! _k
|
| 28.2 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Western Muskogean | xʷ → h / %_{o,i}(C)#
|
| i → ∅ / #(C)V(C)(C)V(C)(C)_# (sporadic in the case of other vowels)
|
| 28.2.2 Proto-Western Muskogean to Choctaw | p → k / _C
|
| 30 Niger-Congo | 30.1 Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu to Proto-Bantu | i ı̃ V[-round] → uɪ uɪ̃ V[+round] / Cʷ_
|
| ɪ̃ → ɛ̃ / #(C)V_C
|
| ɰ ɰ̃ → j j̃ / #C_
|
| ɪ ɪ̃ → i ı̃ / #(C)V[-high]C_
|
| ʋ̃ → m / #(C)V_
|
| O[+nas -voiced] → O[-nas] / #(C)VC_
|
| 30.1.2 Pre-Proto-Bantu to Proto-Manenguba | {u,o} {ɛ,e,i} → w j / C_a in noun roots
|
| {u,o} {ɛ,e,i} → w j / C_(a) in verb roots
|
| {u,o} {ɛ,e,i} → w j / C_$V in noun class prefixes
|
| 30.2 Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu to Proto-Potou-Akanic | C → J[+nas] / #(C)V[+nas]_
|
| ɰɰ̃ →l l̃ / #(C)V_
|
| C → J / #(C)V_
|
| 30.2.1 Proto-Potou-Akanic to Proto-Akanic | ɛ → ia / #(C)_
|
| 30.2.1.1 Proto-Akanic to Akan | V → V[-round] / #C[+dorsal]_C[-labial]
|
| n → ŋ / #(C)V_
|
| V → ∅ / #(C)VC[-coronal]_
|
| ʋ l → w ɹ / #(C)V_
|
| V[+high] → V[+nas] / #(C)_N
|
| i → ∅ / #C_a
|
| 30.3.1.1.8 Proto-Vhe to Adángbe | V[+ nas] → V[- nas] / C_ ! C = N
|
| 31 Nyulnyulan | 31.1 Proto-Nyulnyulan to Bardi | V0 → ∅ / V(C)(C)V0(C)(C)_# (with some exceptions)
|
| 32 Oto-Manguean | 32.2 Proto-Oto-Manguean to Tlapanec | h → ʃ / _C[-voice] (? “both h and š occur before nasals, so it is possible that š has a separate source in Proto Otomanguean”)
|
| 33 Penutian | 33.1.1 Proto-Utian to Proto-Costanoan (Ohlone) | i$Ci → e$Ce / _C ! _ɾ
|
| ɨ$Cɨ → e$Ce / _C ! _ɾ
|
| e → i / _(C…)u
|
| o → a / ! o(C…)_ or _(C…){o,i}
|
| ɨ → e / CC_#
|
| ɨ → {e,i} / CC_
|
| 33.1.1.1 Proto-Costanoan to Chochenyo | o → u / _(C…)i
|
| 33.1.1.3 Proto-Costanoan to Mutsun | o → u / _(C…)i
|
| 33.1.1.4 Proto-Costanoan to Rumsen | i → e / _C(C)oC
|
| o → u / _(C…)i
|
| 33.3.1 Proto-Yokuts to General Yokuts | o → u / _Ci
|
| 33.3.1.1 General Yokuts to Buena Vista Yokuts | V[+ high] → a / V[+ high]C_(C)#
|
| 33.3.2.2.2 Northern Yokuts to Kings Valley Yokuts | i → u / uC_
|
| 33.3.3 Proto-Yokuts to Palewyami | {u,a} → e / _CVC#, when stressed (short only)
|
| i → e / _CVC#, when stressed (! _H, short only)
|
| V → e / C”VC_
|
| V → i / C”iC_
|
| V → u / C”uC_
|
| V → o / C”oC_
|
| 34 Quechumaran | 34.2 Proto-Quechumaran to Bolivia | {k,q} → h / _{C,#}
|
| 34.3 Proto-Quechumaran to Cuzco | ph → p / #_aC[+sibilant]
|
| 34.7 Proto-Quechumaran to Riobamba | s → ʃ / _C[+alveolar]
|
| 34.8 Proto-Quechumaran to Santiago | {k,q} → h / _{C,#}
|
| 34.9 Proto-Quechumaran to Tena | tʃ → ʃ / _C
|
| 35 Salishan | 35.1.1 Proto-Central Salish to Comox | s → ∅ / #_C
|
| 35.1.2 Proto-Central Salish to Chilliwack Halkomelem | V3h → V3ː / _C
|
| 35.1.3 Proto-Central Salish to Cowichan Halkomelem | V3h → V3ː / _C
|
| 35.1.4 Proto-Central Salish to Musqueam Halkomelem | V3h → V3ː / _C
|
| 35.1.5 Proto-Central Salish to Klallam | a3 → u3 / _{Cu,Cʷ[+uvular],w}
|
| 35.1.6 Proto-Central Salish to Lushootseed | V3h → V3{ː,ʔ} / _C
|
| 35.1.7 Proto-Central Salish to Nooksack | ʔ → ∅ / V3R_{C,#}
|
| ə1 → æ2 / a3C(C)_
|
| ə1 → æ2 / _C(C)a3
|
| 35.1.8 Proto-Central Salish to Lummi Northern Straits | ʔ → {∅,ʔ} / V3R_{C,#}
|
| a3 → o3 / {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_
|
| a3 → o3 / _{Cu,C[+ uvular]ʷ,w}
|
| 35.1.9 Proto-Central Salish to Saanich Northern Straits | V3h → V3(ː) / _C
|
| a3 → e3 / ! {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_ or when _{Cu,C[+ uvular]ʷ,w}
|
| 35.1.10 Proto-Central Salish to Songish Northern Straits | V3h → V3ː / _C
|
| a3 → a3 / {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_
|
| a3 → a3 / _{Cu,C[+ uvular]ʷ,w}
|
| 35.1.11 Proto-Central Salish to Sooke Northern Straits | a3 → {a3,o3} / {{C[+ uvular],K}ʷ,w}_
|
| 35.1.15 Proto-Central Salish to Twana | ʔ → ∅ / V3R_C
|
| 35.4 Shuswap to Spokane-Kalispel Shuswap Nasal-to-Vowel Shifts | n nˀ → i iʔ / C_s
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.1 Proto-Sino-Tibetan to Middle Chinese | r → ∅ / C_-
|
| 36.1.1 Late Middle Chinese to Old Mandarin | w → o / Cʲ_?w
|
| i → ∅ / C(w)_a
|
| C → Cʲ / {K,C[+pharyngeal]}_{a,a(ch)}
|
| o → a / C_w ! C = {K,C[+pharyngeal]}
|
| ŋ → n / n_Cʲa(ta)
|
| o → a / Cʲ_w
|
| ∅ → w / C_o# ! C = {K,C[+pharyngeal]}
|
| w → ∅ / C̣Cʲ_?w (“optional”)
|
| ? → a / Cw_Cʲ
|
| {o,e} → ? / _Cʲ
|
| wʲ → w / _?Cʲ
|
| ∅ → w / C̣_aŋ
|
| wʲ → w / C̣_oŋ
|
| 36.1.1.1 Old Mandarin to Modern Pekingese | i → e / C_ʔ
|
| j → ∅ / C̣_
|
| î → e / _C# ! C = r
|
| j → ∅ / C_weŋ
|
| 36.2 Sin Sukchu to Guānhuà | i → [long-tail vowel thing] / C̣_ (“sometimes”, in “variant readings”); when following /ʂ ʐ/, sometimes yields [ʂi], other times [s truncated vowel-thing]
|
| iʔ iw → eʔ ew / C̣_ (the latter with variant iɛu?)
|
| uj → uɛi / {P,C[+guttural],∅}_
|
| uj → ui / {C[+dental],C[+sibilant]}_
|
| un → uɛn / ! {C[+dental],C[+sibilant]}_
|
| y → ɥ (→ y~u dialectally?) / C̣_
|
| yʔ → yɛʔ / {l,C[+dental +sibilant]}_ in “QYS -juət-type” finals, dialectally?
|
| yʔ → oʔ (eventually → {ʊʔ,(i)uʔ?) / {l,C[+dental +sibilant]}_, in “QYS -k-types”
|
| yʔ → ioʔ (→ iʊʔ dialectally?) / {∅,C[+guttural]}_, in -k-types
|
| yʔ → oʔ (→ ʊʔ?) / C̣_, in -k-types
|
| yn → un / C̣_ (may have stayed yn or → ɥn in at least one area?)
|
| je jeʔ yeʔ → ɛ ɛʔ uɛʔ / C̣_
|
| jew → au / C̣(C?)_
|
| yen → uɛn / C̣_
|
| wɔʔ → uɔʔ / C[+guttural]_
|
| aʔ → ɔʔ / C[+guttural]_
|
| waʔ → aʔ / C[+labiodental]_
|
| {jawʔ,wawʔ} → ɔʔ / C̣_
|
| wan → an / C[+labiodental]_
|
| aŋ jaŋ → uaŋ aŋ / C̣_
|
| 36.3.1.1 Proto-Naish to Laze | iN → æ / {P,C}r_%
|
| 36.3.1.2 Proto-Naish to Mosuo (Na) | iN → æ / {P,C}r_
|
| 36.3.1.3 Proto-Naish to Naxi | iN → ɚ / {P,C}r_%
|
| V% → mid tone / C_ru
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.1 Proto-Siouan-Iroquoian to Proto-Iroquoian | p → ∅ / C_ ! s_
|
| x → h / _C ! C_C
|
| ʔ → ∅ / C_
|
| 37.1.1 Proto-Iroquoian to Cherokee | V → ∅ / C_hC
|
| Vʔ → Vː[+low falling tone] / _C
|
| ∅ → Vː[+high rising tone] / C_# (“usually one of [/aː iː ʌ̃ː/ with this tone], the conditions are unclear”)
|
| ∅ → i / C_R
|
| 37.1.2 Proto-Iroquoian to Proto-Northern Iroquoian | i → e / ! _hCC (“short only”)
|
| ∅ → i(ː) / #_(C)(C)CVC(C)(C)#
|
| 37.1.2.1 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Cayuga | V → Vː / _C[-glottal] “in even-numbered syllables when accented or immediately before the accent”
|
| 37.1.2.2 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Huron | ∅ → a / CC_ʔ
|
| 37.1.2.3 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Onondaga | ”V → ”Vː / _C(R)V
|
| hs → sh / C_
|
| hts → tsh / C_V
|
| V → Vː / _”C[-glottal](R)V{ː,H} in “even numbered syllables only”
|
| Vr → Vː / _C
|
| rV → Vː / C_
|
| 37.1.2.4 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Proto-Mohawk-Oneida | ʔ → ∅ / ”Vː[+falling tone]_C
|
| Vː → V / _(C)(C)(C)#
|
| 37.1.2.4.1 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Mohawk | V0 → ∅ / ”VC(C)(C)V0ʔ_C(C)(C)#
|
| 37.1.2.4.2 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Oneida | h → ∅ / _Ch
|
| ʔ → h / _C “in post-tonic syllables”
|
| — ∅ → e / C_{n,l}V(H)#
|
| — ∅ → o / C_wV(H)#
|
| — ∅ → i / C_jV(H)#
|
| — jV → ∅ / Ci_(H)#
|
| — ʔ → h / _C#
|
| 37.1.2.5 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Seneca | h → ∅ / _{tk,nh,sC,C#}
|
| r → j / C[-glottal](h)_{o(ː),õ(ː)
|
| — a e o → ə ɪ ʊ / C_{C,i[-long]}
|
| 37.1.2.6 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Tuscarora | ˀt → n / {#,C}_{V,w,j}
|
| 37.2 Proto-Siouan-Iroquoian to Proto-Siouan | h → ∅ / V_C
|
| 37.2.1 Proto-Siouan to Catawba | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| ∅ → ʔ / C_# (only sometimes?) (*)
|
| 37.2.3 Proto-Siouan to Mandan | mn → mV0nV0 / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 37.2.4.1 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Čiwere | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| 37.2.4.2 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Winnebago | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| 37.2.5.1 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Crow | ʔ → ∅ / _C
|
| 37.2.5.2 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Hidatsa | ʔ → ∅ / C_
|
| r → ∅ / {C,V}k_{C,V}
|
| mn → w / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 37.2.6 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Dhegiha | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| 37.2.6.1 Proto-Dhegiha to Kansa | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| mn → bl / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 37.2.6.2 Proto-Dhegiha to Omaha-Ponca | mn → bθ / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 37.2.6.3 Proto-Dhegiha to Osage | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| mn → bð / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| 37.2.6.4 Proto-Dhegiha to Quapaw | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| 37.2.7 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Ohio-Valley | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| m → ∅ / {C,V}_n{C,V}
|
| 37.2.7.1 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Biloxi | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| ʔ → ∅ / C_
|
| 37.2.7.2 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Ofo | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| ʔ → ∅ / C_
|
| 37.2.7.3 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Tutelo | p → {p,b,m,w} / _C
|
| ʔ → ∅ / C_
|
| 38 Tai-Kadai | 38.1.1.3 Proto-Tai to Central Tai | iə → ı̆ / _C%
|
| 38.1.1.3.1 Central Tai to Lungchow | ɨə → ɨ̆ / _C%
|
| uo ɨ̯u → u(ː) u / _C%
|
| e → i / _C%
|
| 38.1.1.4 Proto-Tai to North Tai | iə → ı̆ / _C%
|
| 38.1.1.4.2 North Tai to Po-Ai | ɨ̆ə → ɨ̆ / _C%
|
| ɨə̯~ɨa̯ → ɨ / _C%
|
| e → ɛ / _C%
|
| ɨɔ → ɨ / _C%
|
| ue̯ → u / _C%
|
| 38.1.1.5 Proto-Tai to Southwest Tai | iə → ı̆ / _C% (not in all languages)
|
| 41 Trans-New Guinea | 41.5.1.6 Proto-Gorokan to Hua | {N,r} → ʔ / _{#,C}
|
| 41.5.1.8 Proto-Gorokan to Move | N → ʔ / _{#,C}
|
| V[+ low tone] → ∅ / C_hV[+ high tone]
|
| V[+ low tone] → ∅ / C_CV[+ high tone] if both vowels are the same
|
| 41.5.1.9 Proto-Gorokan to Siane | {N,r} → ʔ / _C
|
| 41.5.2.1 Proto-Kainantu to Auyana | N → [+ same POA] / _C
|
| 41.5.2.3 Proto-Kainantu to Gadsup | N → [+ same POA] / _C
|
| 41.5.2.4 Proto-Kainantu to Usarufa | r → ʔ / _C
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1 Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic | iw ow → y uː / _(C) (*)
|
| x → @ / _C
|
| a → æ / {a,e,ê,i,y}(X)(C)(C)_, when unstressed
|
| i → e / _C, when unstressed
|
| 42.1.1 Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic | ê ô → e o / _(X)Ci
|
| ê → y / _(X)CA
|
| ô → ɯ → i / _(X)CA
|
| ɑ → e / ”{o,u}(X)C_j
|
| ɑ → o / ”{a,e,i}(X)C_j
|
| x → w / {U,O}_C
|
| x → j / {I,E}_C
|
| ŋ → j / _Cʲ (possibly _F instead?)
|
| ŋ → w / _C ! _k
|
| ŋ → w / C_
|
| j → ∅ / C_i{C,#}
|
| uw ij → ow ej / _C
|
| nʲ → ni / #(C)i_V
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| 42.1.1.1 Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish | j w → i U / V_{C,#}
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| i → ∅ / {VC,ks}_ at the ends of a suffix
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| e → ∅ / C[+coronal]_%
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| 42.1.1.1.1 Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish | j → i / C_, when initial in a suffix
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| V → Vː / h_hC
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| V → Vː / _hC (sporadic)
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| ʋ → ∅ / _UC
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| ɣ → j / C_e
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| æ → a / e(C…)_(C…)o
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| e → ø / #(C…)_y
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| i → y / #(C…)l_y
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| i → y / #(C…)_væ
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| 42.1.2 Proto-Finnic to Livonian | e → ɤ / _C(C){a,o,u}
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| h → ∅ / {#,C}_
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| ɑ æ → æe / _(C…)i
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| ɑ → ə / VC(C)ɑC(C)_# when unstressed
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| Vh → Vːɦ / _C, except maybe ! _j and/or _ʋ
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| ∅ → ʔ / (C)V_CV
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| ə → ∅ / VC_CV
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| ʋ → ∅ / C_
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| V → Vː / _RC(C)ɑ (includes diphthongs)
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| a → aː / VC_
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| e o → eː oː / _Cɑ
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| o → oː / _{RC#,i}
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| 44 Vasconic | 44.2 Proto-Basque to Basque | N → [+ same POA] / _C
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| ɾ → r / _C
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| ∅ → e / #_{s̺,s̻}C
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| i → u / _(C…)u (Roncalese)
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| i → y / _(C…)y (Souletin)
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| e → o / _(C…)o (eastern dialects, Bermeo Biscayan)
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| e → o / o(C…)_ (eastern dialects)
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| a o e → ɛ u i / {i,u}(C…)_ (this [ɛ] is tentatively marked as such; Egurtzegi transcribes it as /e/ but says it’s not as close as /e/)
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| o → u / _n{C,#} (Souletin; some raising occurred elsewhere)
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| e → i / _{n,C[+ sibilant]} (sporadic)
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| e → a / {V,C}_r (“mainly in the western dialects”)
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| u i → o e / _r{C,#}
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| — V → ∅ / C[+ sibilant]_ɾ (Roncalese and Salazarese)
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| s̻ → s̺ / _{C,#} (sometimes)
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| 46 Vowel Shifts | 46.5 Old English-to-Scots Vowel Shifts | a → {ɛ,e} / _rC
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| æ → ɛ / _C[+alveolar]
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| 46.11 Middle Chinese to Cantonese Vowel Shift (“The Inner-Outer Flip”) | ∅ → ə / C[+ labiovelar]_i
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| W → ∅ / C_
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| 46.19 Southern [United States] Shift (English) | aɪ → aː / _C[+ voiced]
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