| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.1.1.7 North Omotic to Yemsa | kʼ → k / #
|
| 6.1.2.1 South Omotic to Aari | kʼ → q
|
| 6.1.2.2 South Omotic to Dime | kʼ → ɡʼ / #_
|
| 6.2.1.1.1 Proto-Agaw to Awngi | kʼ kʷʼ → {ɣ,q} ɣʷ
|
| 6.2.1.1.3 Proto-Agaw to Kemantney | kʼ → χʷ / #_
|
| kʷʼ → χʷ
|
| 6.2.1.1.4 Proto-Agaw to Xamtanga | k → {k(ʼ),q}
|
| kʼ → {χʷ,qʷ} / #_
|
| kʼ → q / else
|
| 6.2.2.1.2 Proto-Boreafrasian to Egypto-Berber | k → ɡ / _{w,j}
|
| k(w) → tʃ / #_Vt
|
| 6.2.2.1.4 Proto-Boreafrasian to Proto-Semitic | kʼ(w) → k / #dlV_
|
| 6.2.2.1.5 Proto-Semitic to Classical Arabic | θˤ kˤ → ðˤ q
|
| 6.2.2.1.6 Classical Arabic to Cypriot Arabic | k x → c ç / _{j,E}
|
| 6.2.2.1.11 Classical Arabic to Iraqi Arabic | k q → tʃ {ɡ,q} (ɡ is more common)
|
| 6.2.2.1.18 Proto-Semitic to Biblical Hebrew | x ɣ kˤ → ħ ʕ q
|
| p b t d k ɡ → b v θ ð x ɣ / non-intial singletons
|
| 7 Algonquian | 7.1 Proto-Algonquian to Kennebec River Abenaki | sk → kː / ! _a
|
| 7.2 Proto-Algonquian to St. Francis Abenaki | sk → kː / ! _a
|
| 7.3 Proto-Algonquian to Proto-Arapaho-Atsina | p k → k ∅
|
| 7.3.1 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Arapaho | ʃ k m → s tʃ b / _{E,j}
|
| ʃ k m → s tʃ b / E_#
|
| 7.3.2 Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Gros Ventre | ʃ θ m k → θ t b tʃ / _e(ː)
|
| ʃ {θ,t} m k → s ts tʲ bʲ / _{i(ː),j,#}
|
| 7.4 Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot | hkw → ʔk
|
| nkw → ʔː
|
| ns sk → {x,s} {x,sː}
|
| tem {k,p}en → mː nː
|
| ket → tː (→ sː?)
|
| ke(h) → tː ?
|
| {k(ʷ)es,keθ} → sː
|
| 7.5 Proto-Algonquian to Cheyenne | p t k → {hp,∅} ht {hk,∅}
|
| {kC,Ck} → ʔ
|
| 7.6 Proto-Algonquian to Northern East Cree | k → tʃ / _i
|
| 7.7 Proto-Algonquian to Southern East Cree | k → tʃ / _i
|
| 7.11 Proto-Algonquian to Munsee Delaware | kw pw mw → kʷ pʷ mʷ
|
| k → ∅ / h_ (sometimes restored via analogy, e.g., in verbs)
|
| 7.14 Proto-Algonquian to Mi’kmaq | k → χ / _(w)a(ː) ! #_
|
| k → χ / a(ː)_
|
| eːk → oχ / _w
|
| 7.16 Proto-Algonquian to Piscataway | k → x
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.1 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Japonic | pʰ tʰ kʰ → p t k
|
| 8.2 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Korean | {tʰ,d} {k,ɡ} → r {h,∅} / {C,V}_{C,V}
|
| pʰ tʰ kʰ → p t {k,h}
|
| 8.3 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Mongolic | k → ɡ / ! #_
|
| kʰ → ɡ / {C,V}_h
|
| kʰ → k / else
|
| 8.4 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Tungusic | k → {k,ɡ} / #_
|
| k → ɡ
|
| kʰ → x / #_
|
| kʰ → {x,k}
|
| 8.5 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Turkic | k → ɡ / _(V)r
|
| kʰ → k
|
| 9 Austroasiatic | 9.1.1 Proto-Vietic to Muong Khen | {kʰ,ɡʱ} → x (Presyllables don’t seem to have affected this much)
|
| 9.1.2 Proto-Vietic to Middle Vietnamese | bʱ {tʰ,dʱ} {t*ʰ,d*ʱ} {kʰ,ɡʱ} → pʰ t tʰ kʰ (after *kʰ *ɡʱ, only first-register tones may occur)
|
| (h)ə{p,b} (h)ə{t,d} (h)ə{c,ɟ} (h)ə{k,ɡ} → β dʲ ɟ ɡ
|
| {əkʰ,əɡɦj} → ɟ (I think Thompson implied this was just a bit of a kludge)
|
| 9.1.2.1 Middle Vietnamese to Hanoi Vietnamese | kʰ → x (only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
|
| 9.1.2.2 Middle Vietnamese to Saigon Vietnamese | kʰ → x (only seems to have occurred with first-register tones)
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.1.1.5 Proto-Polynesian to Luangiua | k t → ʔ k
|
| 10.1.2.7.1 Proto-Kalamian to Agutaynen | k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| 10.1.2.7.2 Proto-Kalamian to Karamiananen | {t,k} q → ʔ k / _C
|
| k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| 10.1.2.7.3 Proto-Kalamian to Kalamian Tagbanwa | {t,k,q,s} → k / _C
|
| k → ∅ / _{V,#}
|
| 10.2.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Chamorro | k → ∅ / _# (sporadic)
|
| k → h / ! _#
|
| 10.2.4.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Madurese | {p,t,k} b d ɡ → ʔ p t k / _#
|
| 10.2.6 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-North Sarawak | pː tː cː kː → p t c k
|
| 10.2.6.1 Proto-North Sarawak to Kiput | k → ∅ / V_V “(in some forms)”
|
| k ŋ → ʔ ∅ / Və̯_#
|
| 10.2.6.2.1 Proto-Kenyah to Òma Lóngh | k → ʔ / _#
|
| p k → f ɣ / V_V ! ”ə_V
|
| 10.2.6.3 Proto-Malayic to Minangkabau | — {p,t,k} s → ʔ h / _#
|
| 10.3 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Oceanic | {ŋk,ŋɡ} ɡ → ɡ k
|
| 10.3.1 Proto-Oceanic to Hawai’ian | k t → ʔ k
|
| 10.3.2 Proto-Oceanic to Hiw | p pʷ {c,*j} k q → β βʷ s ɣ ∅
|
| 10.3.3 Proto-Oceanic to Lemerig | p pʷ k q → β w ɣ ∅
|
| 10.3.4 Proto-Oceanic to Mwotlap | p pʷ bʷ k ɡ → β w kpʷ ɣ k
|
| kpʷ → k / _C (sporadic)
|
| 10.3.5.1 Proto-New Caledonia to Caaàc | pː pwː tː ʈː qː kː → pʰ pwʰ cʰ tʰ h jʰ
|
| q {k,t} {s,ʈ} → k c t
|
| k → ∅ / _{o,a}
|
| {p,pw,k} → ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.2 Proto-New Caledonia to Jawé | q k {ʈ,s} → k c t̪
|
| pː pwː t̪ː tː kː cː → pʰ hʷ t̪ʰ tʰ h jʰ
|
| 10.3.5.3 Proto-New Caledonia to Nemi-Pije-Fwai | q k {ʈ,s} → k c t̪
|
| pː pwː tː t̪ː kː cː → f hʷ t̪ʰ tʰ h jʰ
|
| 10.3.5.4 Proto-New Caledonia to Proto-Northern | q qː k kː s sː → k kː c cː t̪ t̪ː
|
| 10.3.5.4.1 Proto-Northern to Nixumwak-Nêlêmwa | k → c / V_V
|
| k → c / _#
|
| k → ∅ / _{o,a}
|
| kʰ → h / _a
|
| pw p t ʈ k c → (v)w v r l ɣ j / V_V
|
| pwʰ pʰ tʰ kʰ → fw f rʰ x / in Nelemwa
|
| 10.3.5.5 Proto-New Caledonia to Nyelâyu | k → c
|
| k t s → j c t̪
|
| 10.3.5.6 Proto-New Caledonia to Pwaamei | q k t s → k j c t
|
| pː pwː tː ʈ kː cː → f hʷ tʰ lʰ h s
|
| k c → ∅ {j,∅} / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.7 Proto-New Caledonia to Pwapwâ | q k {ʈ,s} → k c t̪
|
| pː pwː t̪ː tː kː cː → pʰ xʷ t̪ʰ tʰ x s
|
| p pw t {k,c} → {v,∅} w l ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.5.8 Proto-New Caledonia to Proto-Yunaga | q k s → k c t̪
|
| pː pwː t̪ː tː ʈː cː kː → pʰ pwʰ t̪ʰ tʰ ʈʰ jʰ h
|
| k → ∅ / _{o,a}
|
| p pw t̪ ʈ k c → v w ð l ∅ j / V_V
|
| 10.3.6.1 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Äiwoo | {t,k} → ∅ / V_V
|
| k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.6.2 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Nagu | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| 10.3.6.3 Proto-Reefs/Santa Cruz to Natügu | t k → l ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.7 Proto-Oceanic to Shark Bay | p pʷ k → v vʷ ɣ
|
| 10.3.8 Proto-Oceanic to Tolomako | p(ʷ) k → v(ʷ) ɣ
|
| 10.3.9.1 Proto-Utupua to Asuboa | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| k → {∅,s} / _#
|
| 10.3.9.2 Proto-Utupua to Nebao | t k → r ∅ / #_ (though *t seems to have occasionally survived?)
|
| 10.3.9.3 Proto-Utupua to Tanibili | k → {k,∅} / #_
|
| t k → {t,r,kʷ,∅} ∅ / V_V
|
| k → {∅,j} / _#
|
| 10.3.10 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Vanikoro | k → ∅ / V_V
|
| 10.3.10.1 Proto-Vanikoro to Buma | k → ∅ / #_
|
| 10.3.11 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Southern Vanuatu | k *R → ɣ r “(frequently)”
|
| q (→ kw ?) → v (rare)
|
| 10.3.11.1 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Anejom | k → ∅ / V_V (sporadic?)
|
| 10.3.11.2.1 Proto-Erromango to Sye | k → ɣ
|
| 10.3.11.2.2 Proto-Erromango to Ura | k → ∅ (perhaps doesn’t always happen but happens often)
|
| 10.3.11.3.2 Proto-Tanna to Lenakel | kʷ → {w,u}
|
| 10.3.11.3.3 Proto-Tanna to North Tanna | kʷ → p / _#
|
| kʷ → ∅ / _u
|
| kʷ → ∅ / _a (rare)
|
| kʷ → {w,u}
|
| 10.3.11.3.5 Proto-Tanna to Whitesands | kʷ → ∅ / u_
|
| kʷ → ∅ / _u
|
| 10.3.12 Proto-Oceanic to Vera’a | p pʷ k q → β w ɣ ∅
|
| 10.5 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Ongan | {qʷ,ku,qu} → kʷ (note that PAn might have had *qʷ *kʷ → q {k,w} instead; may be a change from POn-PAn, if it existed)
|
| 10.5.1 Proto-Ongan to Jarawa | k(ʷ) → h(ʷ)
|
| 10.6.3 Proto-Paiwan to Southern Paiwan | k r → ʔ ɣ
|
| 11 Northeast Caucasian | 11.1.1 Proto-Avar-Andic to Akhvakh | kː ɢ → xʲ {qːʼ,ɣ}
|
| 11.3 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Khinalug | kː kʼ ɡ → k {kʼ,ɡ} {kʼ,kː}
|
| 11.5.2 Proto-Lezgic to Archi | kː ɡ → x {kː,ɡ}
|
| 11.5.3 Proto-Lezgic to Lezghi | kː ɡ → ɣ kː
|
| 11.5.4 Proto-Lezgic to Rutul | kː → x
|
| 11.5.5 Proto-Lezgic to Tabassaran | kː → q
|
| 11.5.6 Proto-Lezgic to Udi | kː → q
|
| 11.6 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Nakh | kː qːʼ → xk(?) qʼ
|
| 11.7.2 Proto-Tsezic to Tsez | kːʼ ɡ → k kʼ
|
| 12 Northwest Caucasian | 12.1 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Abazgi | kʷː → ɡʷ
|
| kʷʲʼ → kʷʼ
|
| 12.2 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Circassian | k kʼ ɡ → kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ
|
| 12.2.1.1 Adyghe to Abadzekh Adyghe | pː tː tsː tsʷ ʃː tʃː tɕː kʲː kʷː qː~qχ qʷː~qχʷ → p t ts tʃʷ ʃ ɕ tɕ tʃ kʷ qː qʷ
|
| kʲʼ → tʃʼ
|
| 12.2.1.2 Adyghe to Bzhedug Adyghe | kʲ(ː) kʲʼ ɡʲ → tʃ(ː) tʃʼ dʑ
|
| 12.2.1.3 Adyghe to Shapsug Adyghe | pː tː tsː tsʷː ʃː tsː tcː kʲː kʷː qː~qχ qʷː~qχʷ → p t ts tʃʷ ʃ tʃ tɕ kʲ kʷ χ~q χʷ~qʷ
|
| 12.2.1.4 Adyghe to Temirgoy Adyghe | kʲ(ː) kʲʼ kʷː ɡʲ → tʃ tʃʼ kʷ dʑ
|
| 12.2.2 Proto-Circassian to Kabardian | kʲ → tʃ
|
| pː tː tsː tsʷː ʃː {tʃː,tɕː} kʷː qː~qχ qʷː~qχʷ → b d dz v ɕ ʒ dʒ ɡʷ qʼ~qχ qʷʼ~qχʷ
|
| tsʲʼ tʃʷʼ~ʃʷʼ tʃʼ tɕʼ tɬʼ kʲʼ → ɕʼ fʼ ɕʼ {ɕʼ,cçʼ} ɬʼ tʃʼ
|
| 12.3 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Ubykh | k kʼ ɡ x ɣ → kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ ɕ ɣ~ʁ
|
| kʷː xʷ → ɡʷ x
|
| kʲʷː xʲʷ ɣʲʷ(?) → ɡʲ kʲʼ xʲ ʁʲ
|
| 13 Chumashan | 13.2 Proto-Chumash to Cruzeño | k → tʃ “(‘in certain cases’)”
|
| 13.4 Proto-Chumash to Obispeño | q k → {q,k} {k(ʃ),tʲ} (allophonic)
|
| 13.6 Proto-Chumash to Ventureño | pʼ kʼ qʼ → p k q
|
| 14 Elamo-Dravidian | 14.1 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Proto-Dravidian | k ʃk → k* kː / V_V (the asterisk-marked k is what McAlpin terms “weak k”, which tends to drop out in morphology)
|
| 14.2 Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Achaemanid Elamite | k ŋk ŋkː → ∅ k kː / V_V
|
| 14.3.1 Standard Tamil to Colloquial Tamil | {k,v} → ∅ / V_V
|
| ʈk → kː
|
| 15 Eskimo-Aleut | 15.2.1 Proto-Eskimo to Barrow Iñupiaq | {p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
|
| 15.2.2 Proto-Eskimo to Greenlandic Iñupiaq | m n ŋ t {{ɣ,ʁ} → {k,q}} → p t k n ŋ / _#
|
| {p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
|
| 15.2.3 Proto-Eskimo to Mackenzie Iñupiaq | {p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
|
| 15.2.4 Proto-Eskimo to Wales Iñupiaq | p k q s → v ɣ ʁ z / V_V
|
| {p,v} t {k,ɣ} → m n ŋ / _N
|
| 16 Extended West Papuan | 16.1.1 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Nafri | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 16.1.2 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Central Sentani | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 16.1.3 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Eastern Sentani | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 16.1.4 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Western Sentani | p k → b ɡ / V_V
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Gheg Albanian | ḱ → s / _{u̯,u,i̯,i}
|
| ḱ → k / _R
|
| ḱ → {ts,tʃ} (“[a]rchaic relic”)
|
| ḱ → θ
|
| kʷ → s / _”E?
|
| kʷ → c / _B?
|
| kʷ → k / else?
|
| sḱ → h / medial
|
| 17.1.2 Proto-Indo-European to Tosk Albanian | ḱ → s / _{u̯,u,i̯,i}
|
| ḱ → k / _R
|
| ḱ → {ts,tʃ} (“[a]rchaic relic”)
|
| ḱ → θ
|
| kʷ → s / _”E?
|
| kʷ → c / _B?
|
| kʷ → k / else?
|
| sḱ → h / medial
|
| 17.2.2 Common Anatolian to Luwian | ḱː → z
|
| kʷ → w
|
| {ḱ,k} → j / _e(ː)
|
| {ḱ,k} → ∅ / _i(ː)
|
| k → ∅ / V_V
|
| k → ∅ / _N
|
| 17.2.3 Common Anatolian to Lycian | kʷ → t / _E
|
| kʷ → k / _E, in Milyan
|
| ḱ → s
|
| 17.3.1 Proto-Indo-European to Artsakh Armenian | kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
|
| p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
|
| {sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
|
| 17.3.2 Proto-Indo-European to Erevan Armenian | kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
|
| p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
|
| {sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
|
| 17.3.3 Proto-Indo-European to Istanbul Armenian | kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
|
| p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
|
| {sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
|
| 17.3.4 Proto-Indo-European to Kharpert Armenian | kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
|
| p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
|
| {sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
|
| 17.3.5 Proto-Indo-European to Sebastia Armenian | kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
|
| p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
|
| {sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
|
| 17.3.6 Proto-Indo-European to Southeast Armenian | kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
|
| p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
|
| {sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
|
| 17.3.7 Proto-Indo-European to Southwest Armenian | kʷ → tʃʰ / _{e,i}
|
| t k(ʷ) → d ɡ / {N,L}_
|
| p ḱ k(ʷ) → {w,v} s kʰ
|
| {sk,ks} kj → tsʰ tʃʰ (?)
|
| 17.4.1 Proto-Indo-European to Avestan | ḱ ɡ́ → s z
|
| k(ʷ) ɡ(ʷ)(ʱ) → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| k kʷ ɡ(ʷ)(ʱ) → x k ɡ / else
|
| 17.5 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic | — p…kʷ → kʷ…kʷ
|
| 17.5.1 Proto-Indo-European to Old Irish | p t k kʷ b d ɡ m n l r s → f θ x xʷ v ð ɣ M N L R h / V(#)_{R,V} (“We don’t know the exact values of lenited /m n l r/. We can guess that lenited m became a nasalized labial continuant of some sort, but beyond that, we don’t know.”)
|
| k → x / V_t
|
| p t k kʷ b d ɡ ∅ → b d ɡ ɡʷ mb nd ŋɡ n / n#_”V
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | kʷ → p
|
| p t k {b,m} d ɡ → b d ɡ v ð ɣ / _V
|
| pː tː kː → f θ x
|
| p t k → f θ x / {r,l}_
|
| mp nt ŋk → m̥ n̥ ŋ̊
|
| 17.6 Proto-Indo-European to Dacian | ḱ ɡ́ → ts dz
|
| {kʷ,kw} {ɡʷ,ɡw} → tʃ dʒ (→ s~z z ?) / _E
|
| {kʷ,kw} {ɡʷ,ɡw} → k ɡ / else
|
| 17.7 Proto-Indo-European to Common Germanic | p t k → f θ x
|
| 17.7.2.1 West Germanic to Anglo-Frisian | k ɡ → tʃ j(?)
|
| 17.7.2.1.1 Anglo-Frisian to Old English | k ɣ ɡ → tʃ ʝ dʒ / “in certain complex circumstances”
|
| 17.7.2.1.10 Old English to Scots | k → ∅ / n_t (sporadic)
|
| {w,k} → ∅ / _{n,r}
|
| 17.7.2.1.11 Scots to Falkirk Scots | pVn tVn kVn → ʔm̩ ʔn̩ ʔŋ̩ / _#
|
| k → ç / V_# ! _C “(sometimes)”; “(except when phonemic)”
|
| 17.7.2.1.14 Anglo-Frisian to Old Frisian | k ɡ → tʃ j / _E
|
| 17.7.2.1.15 North Frisian Lenition | p t k → b d ɡ → v r ɣ / Vː_{V,#}
|
| 17.7.2.4 High German Cosonant Shift and Umlaut | p t k → fː zː xː / V_V
|
| p t k → f z x / _#
|
| p t k → pf ts kx / #_
|
| p t k → pf ts kx / {L,N}_
|
| pː tː kː → pf ts kx
|
| sk → ʃ / #_
|
| 17.7.2.5 West Germanic to Old Low German | k → ts / _E (ɡ → dz here?)
|
| 17.7.3.1 Proto-Norse to Old Norse | k → ∅ / l_s
|
| k → ∅ / r_{m,s,t}
|
| k → ∅ / s_l,t
|
| {t(ː),ɡː}k → kː
|
| k → x / _{p,t}
|
| N(ː) k k(ː) N(ː)ɡ ɡ(ː) ɣ → ɲc(ː) c(ː) ɲɟ(ː) ɟ(ː) ʝ / _{i,j}
|
| N(ː) k k(ː) N(ː)ɡ ɡ(ː) ɣ → ɲc(ː) c(ː) ɲɟ(ː) ɟ(ː) ɟ / _{i,j}
|
| k → h / #_{v,n}
|
| 17.7.3.1.1 Old Norse to Early Icelandic | k → ç / _#
|
| p t k → f θ x / _{S,F[- voice]}
|
| 17.7.3.1.2 Old Norse to Orkney Norn | p(ː) t(ː) k(ː) → b(ː) d(ː) ɡ(ː) / {V,R}_{V,R}
|
| k → s / _n
|
| k ɡ → c ɟ / _{E,j}
|
| sk → {sk,ʃ,ks}
|
| 17.7.3.1.3 Old Norse to Shetland Norn | p t k → b d ɡ / V_V (the second V at least can be a syllabic consonant)
|
| k ɡ → c ɟ / _E
|
| pː tː kː → b d {ɡ,ɣ} / V_V
|
| 17.8.1 Proto-Indo-European to Aeolian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.2 Proto-Indo-European to Attic Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| pʰ tʰ kʰ → f θ x
|
| p t k → b d ɡ / N_
|
| p k → f x / _t
|
| 17.8.3 Proto-Indo-European to Boeotian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.4 Proto-Indo-European to Coan Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.5 Proto-Indo-European to Cretan Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.6 Proto-Indo-European to Doric Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.7 Proto-Indo-European to Elian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.8 Proto-Indo-European to Ionic Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.8.9 Proto-Indo-European to Laconian Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| pʰ tʰ kʰ → f θ x
|
| 17.8.10 Proto-Indo-European to Mycenaean Greek | kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → t tʰ d / _E
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → p pʰ b / _{a,o,C}
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / _u
|
| kʷ kʰʷ ɡʷ → k kʰ ɡ / u_
|
| 17.9 Proto-Indo-European to Hittite | ḱ ɡ́ ɡ́ʱ → k ɡ ɡʱ
|
| kʷ ɡʷ ɡʷʱ → ku ɡu ku
|
| 17.10 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian | k ɡ ɡʱ → c ɟ ɟʱ / _e,i,j
|
| 17.10.1 Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Indo-Aryan | k → ∅ / #_t
|
| 17.10.1.2 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Eastern Middle Indo-Aryan | kʂ → hk
|
| 17.10.1.3 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Northwestern Middle Indo-Aryan | kʂ → tʃː
|
| 17.10.1.4 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Western Middle Indo-Aryan | kʂ → tʃː
|
| 17.11 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Slavic | Kʷ ḱ ɡ́ → K s z
|
| k ɡ x → tʃ ʒ ʃ / _{e(ː)(i),i(ː)}
|
| k ɡ x → ts dz s / _{æː,i}
|
| k ɡ x → ts dz s / “After some syllables with front vowels”
|
| kj ɡj xj → tʃ ʒ ʃ
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | sk x → ɕtɕ ɕ / _E
|
| k ɡ → kʲ ɡʲ / _ɛ where the vowel is from a yer or a borrowing
|
| kɨ ɡɨ → kʲi ɡʲi
|
| trk → kr / in the name of the river “Skrwa”
|
| stʲkl → ɕtɕkl → {ɕ,s}kɫ → ʂkɫ
|
| 17.11.2 Proto-Slavic to Old Russian | kt ɡd → _E
|
| 17.12 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Italic | ḱ ǵ → k ɡ
|
| 17.12.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Latin | ḱ ɡ́ → k ɡ
|
| kʷ → ∅ / C_C
|
| kʷ → k / _{o,i,C}
|
| p…kʷ → kʷ…kʷ
|
| {k,ɡ} → ŋ / _n
|
| 17.12.1.1.2 Latin to Catalan | p b t d k ɡ → β {β,w} ∅ {j,w} ɣ {j,∅,ɡ} / V_rV
|
| {kl,ɡl} → ʎ / V_V (the latter is irregular)
|
| sk → ʃ / V_{i,e}
|
| p k → ∅ j / V_tV
|
| k → ∅ / Vn_tV
|
| ks → ʃ / V_V
|
| k → j / _s#
|
| lj rj kj ɡj → ʎ jr ts ʒ / V_V
|
| k ɡ → ∅ {∅,ʒ} / V_{i,e} (ɡ → ʒ is learned)
|
| k j → ɡ ʒ / V_V
|
| k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e}
|
| kʷ → k / C_V
|
| kʷ → ɡ / V_{i,e}
|
| kʷ → k / #_a%”V
|
| kʷ → ɡw / V_a
|
| kʷ → kw / #_”a
|
| k → w / V_rV
|
| 17.12.1.1.3 Latin to French | k ɡ → tj dj / _E
|
| nk → ɲ / _t
|
| k ɡ → t d / {n,r}_r
|
| {kl,ɡl,lj} → ʎ
|
| k → js / V_sV
|
| k → j / _s#
|
| {k,ɡ} → ∅ / V_B
|
| {k,ɡ} → ∅ / B_a
|
| {k,ɡ} → j / _{a,C}
|
| kʷ → {v,u} / V_E
|
| kʷ → j{v,u} / V_a
|
| — (k)kj → ts
|
| k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _a
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ
|
| k → ∅ / V[+nas]_#
|
| 17.12.1.1.4 Vulgar Latin to Italian | tVk → dʒ / unstressed
|
| k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| kVl → kːj / unstressed
|
| kt → tː
|
| {t,d,k,m,n,s} → ∅ / _#
|
| t k → d ɡ / V_r
|
| {skj,stj,sːj → ʃ
|
| tj ks w → ts sː ɡw
|
| 17.12.1.1.5 Latin to Portuguese | {olt,okt} → ujt → ut
|
| k → ts → s / #_{i,e}
|
| k → ɡ / #_{a,r} (rare)
|
| {fl,skl} → ʃ
|
| kl → kʎ → tʃ → ʃ / #_
|
| {kl,ɡl} → ʎ
|
| kʷ → kw / #_”a
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / #_{i,e,o}
|
| kʷ → ɡ / V_{i,e}
|
| kʷ → k / VC_{a,i,e}
|
| kʷ → ɡw / V_a
|
| p t k → b d ɡ / V_r
|
| k → j / V_tV
|
| k → ∅ / Vn_tV
|
| ks ɡn tj → ʃ ɲ {z,s} / V_V (tj → s is learned)
|
| kj → ts → s / V_V
|
| k → j / _s#
|
| sk k → jʃ z / V_{i,e}
|
| k → ɡ / V1_V2 ! V2 = ɔ
|
| 17.12.1.1.6 Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ / _B
|
| p t k s → b d ɡ z / V_V (this b → v?)
|
| k → ∅ / _s{C,#} (the latter in polysyllables only)
|
| (s)k ɡ → (s)tʃ dʒ / #_a (in the north and northeast)
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → kw ɡw (in western dialects)
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ (else)
|
| kː → tʃ / _a (in the east and northeast)
|
| {t,d}l {k,ɡ}l → lː ʎ
|
| p k tʃ b ɡ β j → b ɡ i {b,u,u→y→i} ∅ {u,u→y→i} i / _r
|
| {d,k}w → ɡʷ → ɡ
|
| (kʷ → ɡʷ → ɡ ?)
|
| {l,r}w {n,ŋk,ŋɡ}w → lɡʷ ŋɡʷ → lɡ ŋɡ
|
| ktj klj → is ʎ
|
| {tʃ(ː),kʷ}j → ts
|
| ndt ndtʃ ntʃ nkt nf → n{d,t} {nts,ndz(→ nz),ndʒ} n(t)s {ɲ,(i)nt,ntʃ} {nf,fː(→ f)}
|
| k → ∅ / s_b (sporadic?)
|
| bk → pts / _a
|
| ktʃ → (i)tʃ (in western and extreme eastern dialects)
|
| ktʃ → its → is (else)
|
| tʃ k → {i,s} {∅,k} / _m
|
| kt ɡd → it id (in the north, northeast, and southwest)
|
| {tʃ,k}t ɡd → tʃ dʒ (else)
|
| ksk → stʃ / _a (in the north and northeast)
|
| k → ∅ / _sk (else)
|
| ks → ʃ → s / _m
|
| ksː → is
|
| pk → ptʃ / _a
|
| 17.12.1.1.7 Vulgar Latin to Rhaeto-Romance | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _a (note the similarity with some varieties of Old Provençal)
|
| 17.12.1.1.8 Latin to Romanian | k → ∅ / _s#
|
| kʷ ɡʷ → p b / V_a
|
| k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _E
|
| kj ɡj → tʃ {j,∅} (ɡj → ∅ is rare)
|
| 17.12.1.1.9 Latin to Sardinian | kw ɡw → pː bː / #_ (“[o]nly Logudorese”)
|
| k → ts / _i
|
| {p,k}s → sː
|
| k → ∅ / _t ?
|
| sk → sː
|
| 17.12.1.1.10 Vulgar Latin to Spanish | {tj,kj} {tːj,kːj,ptj,ktj,skj} → ts tːs
|
| k ɡ → tʃ dʒ → ts dz / _{j,i,e,ɛ}
|
| {t,k} → ∅ / _#
|
| {k,ɡ} → x → j / _{t,s,n,l}
|
| p t k s ts → b d ɡ z dz / V_V
|
| pː tː kː sː tːs ʝː → p t k s ts ʝ
|
| kl pl → ʎ {ʎ,tʃ}
|
| — mpVt skVp spVt stVk → nt sp st sk
|
| kθ → θː
|
| 17.12.2 Proto-Italic to Proto-Sibellian | ḱ ɡ́ kʷ ɡʷ → k ɡ p b
|
| 17.13 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Tocharian | p {ts,k(ʷ)} m n l r y → pj sʲ ʂ mj ɲ lj rj wj / _{E(:),y}
|
| 17.13.1 Proto-Tocharian to Tocharian A | k → p / _{s,ʂ}
|
| {kʷ,kw} → k
|
| 18 Je-Tupı́-Carib | 18.2.1 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Proto-Jê | ŋʷ {kʷ,hʷ} → m p
|
| 18.2.2 Proto-Ofaié-Jê to Ofaié-Xavante | k(ʷ) → ʔ / _#
|
| kʷ → k
|
| 18.3.1 Proto-Tuparí to Makuráp | k → ∅ / _#
|
| kʷ → ∅
|
| 18.3.2 Proto-Tuparí to Mekens | k → ɡ / in U[+stress]
|
| 18.3.3 Proto-Tuparí to Tuparí | kʷ ɡ → ∅ k
|
| 18.3.4 Proto-Tuparí to Wayoró | k → ɡ / in U[+stress]
|
| 18.4.1 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Akwára | k b r → {ŋ,∅} {w,m} {n,r,t} / _#
|
| 18.4.4 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guaraní | k → ∅
|
| 18.4.5 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guarayo | {b,k} r → ∅ {r,∅} / _#
|
| 18.4.7 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Parintintín | k → {ŋ,∅} / _#
|
| 18.4.8 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Sirionó | k → ∅ / _#
|
| 18.4.10 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Urubu | p k → k ∅ / _w
|
| k → {k,∅} / _#
|
| k → {k,ʃ} / else
|
| 19 Kartvelian | 19.2 Proto-Kartvellian to Svan | k kʼ → {k,tʃ} {kʼ,tʃʼ}
|
| 20 Khoisan | 20.1.4 Proto-Khoe to Kxoe | kʰ → kx
|
| 20.1.5 Proto-Khoe to Nama | k → ɡ
|
| ts dz kxʼ → {ts,s} d ∅
|
| 20.1.6 Proto-Khoe to Naro | kʰ → {kx,k}
|
| 20.1.8 Proto-Khoe to Teti | ts dz kxʼ → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s} z kʼ
|
| 20.1.9 Proto-Khoe to TsÊixa | ts dz kxʼ → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s} z kʼ
|
| 21 Lakes Plain | 21.1 Proto-Lakes Plain to Proto-Far West | ku →∅ / #_
|
| 21.1.1 Proto-Far West to Awera | k → ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.1.2 Proto-Far West to Saponi | p b d k → p~f w ɾ ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.1.3 Proto-Far West to Rasawa | p b d k → ɸ β ɾ x~k / V_V
|
| 21.2.1 Proto-Tariku to Proto-Central Tariku | ku → b
|
| p k → ɸ ∅~k
|
| 21.2.1.1 Proto-Central Tariku to Edopi | b k → m~b ∅ / #_
|
| 21.2.1.2 Proto-Central Tariku to Iau | b k → m~b ∅ / #_
|
| 21.2.2.1 Proto-East Tariku to Biritai | ku → b
|
| k → ∅ / _V̂
|
| 21.2.2.6 Proto-East Tariku to Sikaritai | ik → ɡ / {s,k,p}_ ?
|
| 21.2.2.7 Proto-East Tariku to Waritai | k → ∅ / _V̂
|
| ik → ɡ / {s,p}_ ?
|
| 21.2.3 Proto-Tariku to Proto-West Tariku | k → k~∅
|
| 21.2.3.1 Proto-West Tariku to Deirate | b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.2.3.2 Proto-West Tariku to Faia | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.2.3.3 Proto-West Tariku to Fayu | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.2.3.4 Proto-West Tariku to Kirikiri | b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.2.3.5 Proto-West Tariku to Sehudate | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.2.3.6 Proto-West Tariku to Tause | b d k → b~β ɾ~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 21.2.3.7 Proto-West Tariku to Weirate | b d k → b~β ɾ~l~∅ k~x~ɡ~ɣ / V_V
|
| 22 Macro-Arawakan | 22.2 Proto-Arawá to Banawá-Jamamadi | kʰ ɡ → k w
|
| 22.4 Proto-Arawá to Jarawara | kʰ ɡ → k w
|
| 22.6 Proto-Arawá to Sorowahá | kʰ → k
|
| 25 Macro-Panoan | 25.1.1 Proto-Tacanan to Cavineña | k → kʷ
|
| 25.1.2 Proto-Tacanan to Chama | t k → k kʷ
|
| 25.1.3 Proto-Tacanan to Reyesano | k → kʷ
|
| 25.1.4 Proto-Tacanan to Tacana | k → kʷ / _a
|
| k → kʷ / #_i
|
| 26 Mande | 26.1 Proto-Mande to Bobo | tʼ {kʼ,ɡ} → t k
|
| kp ɡb → k ɡw
|
| 26.2 Proto-Mande to Busa | tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| kp kpʼ → {kp,k} ɡb
|
| 26.3 Proto-Mande to Dan | tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| kpʼ → ɡb
|
| 26.4 Proto-Mande to Guro | tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| kp {kpʼ,ɡb} → p b
|
| 26.5 Proto-Mande to Kono-Vai | {ɡ,w,kp} kpʼ ɡb → k kp b
|
| tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| 26.6 Proto-Mande to Southwest Mande | {tʼ,d} {kʼ,ɡ} → l k
|
| kp kpʼ ɡb → {k,B} kp B (it’s unclear what this 〈B〉 is)
|
| 26.7 Proto-Mande to Mandekan | {k,ɡ,kp} {kpʼ,ɡb} → s b
|
| tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| 26.8 Proto-Mande to Mano | tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| kpʼ → ɡb
|
| 26.9 Proto-Mande to Mwa | tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| kpʼ → ɡb
|
| 26.10 Proto-Mande to San | tʼ kʼ → t k
|
| kp kpʼ → k b
|
| 26.11 Proto-Mande to Sembla | tʼ {kʼ,ɡ,w} → {t,d} k
|
| 26.12 Proto-Mande to Soninka | tʼ {kʼ,ɡ} → {t,d} k
|
| kp ɡb → k b
|
| 26.13 Proto-Mande to Susu | kp ɡb → k b
|
| 27 Mayan | 27.3 Proto-Mayan to Huastecan | kV[+round]C[+glide] → kʷ
|
| 28 Muskogean | 28 Muskogean | k → ∅ / V_C ! penult
|
| 28.1.1 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Alabama | kV → ∅ / V_#
|
| k → ∅
|
| 28.1.2 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Creek | V1kV2 → V2ː / #((C)V(C))(C)_#
|
| V1k → ∅ / _#
|
| kʷ → k / #_
|
| kʷ → b
|
| kl → kː
|
| 28.1.4 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Korasati | VkV → ”V / _#
|
| k → ∅
|
| 29 Na-Dene | 29.1 Proto-Na-Dene to Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak | kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz s
|
| 29.1.1 Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak to Proto-Athabaskan | k kʼ kʷ kʷʼ ɡ ɡʷ → kʲ kʲʼ tʂ tʂʼ ɡʲ ɖʐ
|
| 29.1.1.1.21 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Kiowa Apache | k → tʃ / _E
|
| 29.1.1.1.30 Proto-Athabaskan to Hare Slavey-Hare | tɬʰ tʃ(ʷ)ʰ kʰ → ɬ s ʃ
|
| 29.1.2 Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak to Eyak | kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz {s,ʃ}
|
| 29.2 Proto-Na-Dene to Tlingit | kʲ kʲʼ → {k,ʃ} kʼ
|
| k(ʷ)ʼ → {x,k}(ʷ)ʼ
|
| 30 Niger-Congo | 30.1.1.1 Proto-Bantu to Sebirwa | p t d c ɟ k ɡ → ɸ ɹ {d,l} tʰ ∅ h {∅,ɡ}
|
| 30.1.1.2 Proto-Bantu to Tswana | {p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n} → s tsʰ ts ɲ / _iV
|
| {tʃ,k} {ntʃ,nk,r} {ɲdʒ,nɡ} mp mb p b {d,l} m n → s tsʰ ts tʃʰ(w) tʃ(w) ʃ(w) dʒ(w) dʒ ŋw ɲ / _{ɪ,e}V
|
| {p,t,tʃ,k} {mp,nt,ɲtʃ,nk} {(m)b,(n)d,(ɲ)dʒ,(n)ɡ} {m,n,ɲ} → sw tsʰw tsw ɲw / _iV
|
| {tʃ,k} {ɲtʃ,nk} {ndʒ,nɡ} → s tsʰ ts / _{i,ɪ,e}
|
| nk k → kʰ h / _u
|
| mp nt ɲtʃ nk mp nd ɲdʒ nɡ → pʰ tʰ tɬʰ qʰ p t tɬ k
|
| p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
|
| 30.1.2 Pre-Proto-Bantu to Proto-Manenguba | ’p ’t ’d/d2 c {’ɟ} ’k ɡ → f l ɟ s ∅ {w,∅} {k,w} / in C1 position
|
| p t ’t {’d,d2} c k ’k → b d l {l,∅} ɟ ɡ ∅ / in C2 position
|
| 30.2.1.1 Proto-Akanic to Akan | {p,ʋ̃} c k͜p → f s p / #_
|
| 30.3.1.1.3 Proto-Gbe to Proto-Fon | {t,k}j {d,ɡ}j → tʃ dʒ
|
| 30.3.1.1.4 Proto-Gbe to Proto-Gen | {t,k}j {d,ɡ}j → tʃ dʒ
|
| 30.3.1.1.6 Proto-Phla-Pherá to Alada | k ɡ → ʃ ʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.8 Proto-Vhe to Adángbe | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.9 Proto-Vhe to Avéno | k ɡ s → ts dz ʃ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.10 Proto-Vhe to Awalan | s {k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → ʃ tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.11 Proto-Vhe to Kpándo | {t,k} {d,ɡ} → ts dz / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.12 Proto-Vhe to Pecı́ | {k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.13 Proto-Vhe to TẸ́wun | k ɡ → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 30.3.1.1.14 Proto-Vhe to Wacı́ | {k,ts} {ɡ,dz} → tʃ dʒ / _i
|
| 31 Nyulnyulan | 31.1 Proto-Nyulnyulan to Bardi | i(ː)b ik → iw ij / _a
|
| 32 Oto-Manguean | 32.1.1 Proto-Chatino to Papabuco Chatino | k → ɡ / a_a
|
| kʷ → ɾ / #_ek
|
| kʷ → b / else
|
| 32.1.2 Proto-Chatino to Tataltepec Chatino | kʲ → tʲ
|
| 32.1.3 Proto-Chatino to Yaitepec Chatino | k → tʃ / _Ek(ʷ)
|
| kʲ → k / _{a,ã}
|
| kʲ → kj / else
|
| kʷ → w / _eːj
|
| kʷ → w / _ek
|
| kʷ → ʍ / ku_ (medial)
|
| kʷ → kw / else
|
| 32.1.4 Proto-Chatino to Zenzontepec Chatino | kʲ → tʃ
|
| 32.2 Proto-Oto-Manguean to Tlapanec | kʷ → p
|
| {ns,nt} nkʷ nj nw → (n)d (m)b r m
|
| nk → {ɡ,ŋ} (the latter “under obscure conditions”)
|
| 33 Penutian | 33.1.1 Proto-Utian to Proto-Costanoan (Ohlone) | k → ʂ / _i
|
| k → ʂ / i_
|
| k → s̪ / _{ɨ,u}
|
| k → s̪ / {ɨ,u}_
|
| 33.1.1.1 Proto-Costanoan to Chochenyo | kʷ → k / #_
|
| kʷ → w / else
|
| 33.1.1.2 Proto-Utian to Proto-Miwok | kʷ ʃ → w ʂ
|
| 33.1.1.3 Proto-Costanoan to Mutsun | kʷ → k / #_
|
| kʷ → {k,w} / else
|
| 33.1.1.4 Proto-Costanoan to Rumsen | kʷ → k / #_
|
| kʷ → {k,w} / else
|
| 33.2.1 Proto-Wintuan to Nomlaki | tʃʰ kʰ qʰ {x,χ} → tʃ k(ʰ) {kʰ,qʰ,χ} kʰ
|
| 33.2.2 Proto-Wintuan to Patwin | k(ʰ) kʼ q(ʰ) qʼ → tʃ(h) tʃʼ kʰ kʼ
|
| 33.2.3 Proto-Wintuan to South Patwin | k(ʰ) kʼ q(ʰ) qʼ → tʃ(ʰ) tʃʼ k(ʰ) kʼ
|
| 33.2.4 Proto-Wintuan to Wintu | kʰ qʰ → k χ
|
| 33.3.2.2.1 Northern Yokuts to Gashowu | p t ʈ k → b d ɖ ɡ
|
| 34 Quechumaran | 34.1 Proto-Quechumaran to Ayachuco | pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ qʼ → p t tʃ k q
|
| 34.2 Proto-Quechumaran to Bolivia | ph th kh qh → pʰ tʰ kʰ qʰ
|
| {k,q} → h / _{C,#}
|
| 34.3 Proto-Quechumaran to Cuzco | kh → k / r_
|
| kh → k / #_a
|
| kh → k / #_ “in a word with two back vowels”
|
| kh qh → kʰ qʰ
|
| 34.4 Proto-Quechumaran to Huarás | pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ qʼ → p t ts k q
|
| 34.5 Proto-Quechumaran to Putamayo | pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ → p t k q
|
| k → ɡ / n_
|
| k → ɡ / _{L,j}
|
| 34.6 Proto-Quechumaran to Quito | pʼ kʼ qʼ → p k q
|
| k → ɡ / _#
|
| k → ɡ / n_
|
| k → ɡ / _{L,j}
|
| kʼ → h / j_
|
| 34.7 Proto-Quechumaran to Riobamba | pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ → p t k q
|
| k → h / _#
|
| k → ɡ / _{L,j}
|
| kh → kʰ / #_{i,u}
|
| kh → k
|
| k ts → ɡ dz / n_
|
| 34.8 Proto-Quechumaran to Santiago | pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ qʼ → p t tʃ k q
|
| {k,q} → h / _{C,#}
|
| k → c / j_ (?)
|
| 34.9 Proto-Quechumaran to Tena | pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ → p t k q
|
| k → ɡ / n_
|
| k → ɡ / _{L,j}
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.1.1 Late Middle Chinese to Old Mandarin | k → j / {e,a,o}_
|
| k → w / V_
|
| 36.1.1.1 Old Mandarin to Modern Pekingese | k(ʰ) h → ɕ͡(ʰ) ɕ / _j
|
| 36.3.1.1 Proto-Naish to Laze | {r,s}k {r,s}Nk → f w / _V
|
| S{b,ɡ} Sk → v h / _V
|
| 36.3.1.2 Proto-Naish to Mosuo (Na) | {r,s}k {r,s}Nk → k ʁ / _V
|
| S{b,ɡ} Sk → ∅ h
|
| 36.3.1.3 Proto-Naish to Naxi | {r,s}(N)k → k / _V
|
| Sb Sk Sɡ → b ? ɡ / _V
|
| 36.3.2.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to bTshan La | k sk kr ɡ Pɡ sɡ Nɡ (s)ɡr çK rK Kç → kʰ zɡw dr Nɡ pk sk mk (s)kr çk rɡj ɡçkr
|
| (ʔ)kj (s)ɡj Nkj → (k)tç (s)kj Ndʒ
|
| 36.3.2.1.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Chos Kia | sk rK → j sɡ
|
| kj Nkj ʔkj ɡj sɡj → kj. nj ɡ.tsʰ kj skj.
|
| kr (s)ɡr → n.br (s)kr
|
| ut uk → ud oɡ
|
| ok → iɡ
|
| {k,j} → ∅ / i_
|
| 36.3.2.1.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to Hanniu | p k ts → p. k. tʃ.
|
| k → ∅ / {u,a}_
|
| 36.3.2.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to Japhug | ɔk → ɤɣ / _#
|
| 36.3.2.2.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Kham To | k (N)ɡ → k. (m)k
|
| Nkj ɡj sɡj → mj ts stʃj
|
| 36.3.2.2.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to lCog Rtse | (P)ɡ sɡ çK Nɡ k sk rk (s)ɡj (ʔ)kj → (p)k sk çk mk kʰ zɡ Nɡ (s)kj (ʔ)kʰj
|
| Nkj (s)ɡr Kç kr skr ɡr → mɡj (s)kr ɡçkr kʰr zɡr Nɡr
|
| 36.3.2.2.3 Proto-rGyalrongic to Pati | im it ik is ij → em u e es e
|
| uk → o
|
| 36.3.2.2.4 Proto-rGyalrongic to Suo Mo | kr rk {rK,Pɡ} ɡ Pɡ sɡ → k.r rk. pk k sk
|
| ʔkj → ktʃ.
|
| 36.3.2.2.5 Proto-rGyalrongic to Trung | kr → dz
|
| 36.3.2.2.6 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tsa Ku Nao | k {sɡ,çK} Nɡ rK → k. sk mɡ nk
|
| kj → tʃ.
|
| ut u{k,n} ur → ud uo uɛ
|
| i i{t,k} → {ə,iɛ} ə
|
| 36.3.2.2.7 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tzu Ta | k rk kr kj Nkj ɡr → kʰdz nɡ kʰr tʃh dʒ nkʰr
|
| uk uŋ → {u,o} e
|
| it ik → o ek
|
| 36.3.2.2.8 Proto-rGyalrongic to Wassu | k kr kj ɡ → k. k.r ts. ɡ
|
| uk → o
|
| it ik → o i
|
| 36.3.3.1 Old Tibetan to Amdo dialects | k(ʰ){r,j} ɡ{r,j} → tɕ(ʰ) dʑ
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.1 Proto-Siouan-Iroquoian to Proto-Iroquoian | k → ∅ / t_
|
| kʰ → r
|
| 37.1.1 Proto-Iroquoian to Cherokee | k kʷ → ts k / _i
|
| ks → ts / _V
|
| t ts k kʷ → d dz ɡ ɡʷ / _V
|
| 37.1.2.1.1 Cayuga to Upper Cayuga | t k kʷ → d ɡ ɡʷ / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.1.2 Cayuga to Lower Cayuga | tʔ tsʔ kʔ kʷʔ → tʼ tsʼ kʼ kʷʼ
|
| t k kʷ → d ɡ ɡʷ / _{V,R} ! _V[-voiced]
|
| 37.1.2.2 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Huron | k → i / #_n
|
| k → ∅ / _n
|
| k → h / _{t,ts,s,ʃ}
|
| k → x / {#,R,ʔ,V}_{V,ʔ,R,#}
|
| kʷ → xʷ / V_V
|
| 37.1.2.2.1 Huron to Wyandot | k → ∅ / _#
|
| 37.1.2.3 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Onondaga | k → h / _k
|
| t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.4.1 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Mohawk | — k → t / _j
|
| — t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.4.2 Proto-Mohawk-Oneida to Oneida | t tʃ k(ʷ) → d dʒ ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.5 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Seneca | k → ∅ / _hts
|
| — t k(ʷ) → d ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.1.2.6 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Tuscarora | t k(ʷ) → d ɡ(ʷ) / _{V,R}
|
| 37.2.2 Proto-Siouan to Dakota | km → kV0mV0
|
| hk →tʃ
|
| k → ∅ / _x”V
|
| 37.2.2.1 Dakota to Santee Dakota | kr → hd / #_
|
| kr → ɡj / medial
|
| 37.2.2.2 Dakota to Teton Dakota | {pr,mt} kr → bl ɡl
|
| 37.2.3 Proto-Siouan to Mandan | km → kV0pV0
|
| sk → ʃ / _”V
|
| 37.2.4 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago | k → ɡ / V[+nas]_ ! _#
|
| k → ɡ / _ʔ
|
| kr → kV0rV0
|
| 37.2.4.1 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Čiwere | k → ɡ / ”V_
|
| kr → ɡl
|
| k → h / _m
|
| k → ∅ / #t_
|
| tk → ɡ / when medial
|
| 37.2.4.2 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Winnebago | pr {sr,xr} sn km → pV0rV0 ʃV0rV0 sV0nV0 kV0wV0
|
| tk → {tʃk,tʃɡ} / #_
|
| xk → ɡ
|
| 37.2.5.1 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Crow | k → ts / _i
|
| sk → tsk / _”V
|
| 37.2.5.2 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Hidatsa | kr → kV0rV0 / #_
|
| km → hp
|
| sk → tsuk / _”u
|
| sk kx → tsk hk / _”V
|
| sk → hts / ”V_
|
| 37.2.6 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Dhegiha | k → ɡ / ”V_
|
| k → ∅ #t_ (in morphemes)
|
| tk → ɡ / when medial
|
| 37.2.6.1 Proto-Dhegiha to Kansa | tʲr kr → ʃt l
|
| 37.2.6.2 Proto-Dhegiha to Omaha-Ponca | k → ∅ / _ʔ
|
| pr sr tʲr kr → bθ sn ʃn ɡθ
|
| 37.2.6.3 Proto-Dhegiha to Osage | pr sr tʲr kr → bð sts ʃd ɡð
|
| xk → (ʃ)k / _”V
|
| xk → ɡ / ”V_
|
| 37.2.7.1 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Biloxi | k → ∅ / #t_
|
| k → ∅ / ”Vs_
|
| k → ∅ / _x”V
|
| kx → xk / ”V_
|
| 37.2.7.2 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Ofo | sr kr → ft kV0lV0
|
| k → ∅ / #t_
|
| sk → f / ”V_
|
| kx → sk / ”V_
|
| kx → s
|
| 37.2.7.3 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Tutelo | k → ᵑk / _ʔ
|
| 38 Tai-Kadai | 38.1.1.1 Proto-Tai to Ahom | k → kʰ / _r
|
| 38.1.1.2 Proto-Tai to Saek | k → t / _l
|
| 38.1.1.3 Proto-Tai to Central Tai | kl kr → {kj,tʃ} kʰj
|
| 38.1.1.4 Proto-Tai to North Tai | {kʰ,ɡ}{l,r} → tʃ
|
| k{l,r} → {kj,tʃ}
|
| {pʰ,b} ɓ {tʰ,d} ɗ {kʰ,ɡ} {kʷʰ,ɡ} → p b t d k kʷ
|
| 38.1.1.4.1 North Tai to Dioi | k → tʃ / _E
|
| kl → ð
|
| 38.1.1.4.2 North Tai to Po-Ai | k → tʃ / _E
|
| 38.1.1.5.2 Southwest Tai to Lü | {kʰ,ɣ} ɡ → x k
|
| kʷʰ ɣʷ → xʷ x(ʷ)
|
| 38.1.1.5.6 Southwest Tai to White Tai | {kʰ,ɣ} ɡ ɡ{l,r} → x k tʃ
|
| kʷʰ ɣʷ → xʷ x(ʷ)
|
| 39 Tanoan | 39.1 Proto-Tanoan to Jimez | k(ʷ)ʰ kʷ(ʼ) ɡ ɡʷ → h ɡ k kʷ
|
| 39.2 Proto-Tanoan to Kiowa | kʷ kʷʰ kʷʼ ɡʷ → k kʰ kʼ ɡ
|
| 39.3 Proto-Tanoan to Taos | kʰ kʰʷ ɡ ɡʷ → x xʷ k w
|
| 39.4 Proto-Tanoan to Tewa | kʰ kʷʰ ɡʷ → x xʷ w
|
| 40 Totozoquean | 40.1 Proto-Totozoquean to Proto-Mixe-Zoquean | nʲ tʲ tʃ kʲ → n t s ts k
|
| 40.2 Proto-Totozoquean to Proto-Totonacan | nʲ tʲ kʲ k → l tʃ k q
|
| 41 Trans-New Guinea | 41.1 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Apalɨ | t k ŋ → {l,t} {h,k} n / #_
|
| p k ⁿd → β {h,k} nj / V_V
|
| 41.2 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Asmat | k s → ∅ {t,s} / #_
|
| 41.7 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kâte | k ᵐb ⁿd → {k,h} b {s,t} / #_
|
| p k → t ʔ / _#
|
| 41.8 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kiwai | t k ᵐb → {s,t} {ɡ,∅} {b,p} / #_
|
| t ᵐb ⁿd {k,ᵑɡ} nj → {r,t} p {d,t} ɡ r / V_V
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1.1 Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic | tk → k / in Pre-Livonian (?)
|
| 42.1.1.1 Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish | pː tː tsː kː → pˑ tˑ tsˑ kˑ
|
| p t ts s k → b d s z ɡ
|
| {kt,pt} {kts,pts} → tː tːs
|
| xk → kː (even across word boundaries)
|
| (t(ː))sn kx(tx) rn ln → sː xː rː lː
|
| {p,t,k}({p,t,k})n {p,t,k}({p,t,k})m → nː mː
|
| {p,t,k} → ∅ / _st
|
| {ks,nts} nt → s t / _#
|
| {p,k} → h / _t
|
| 42.1.1.1.1 Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish | pˑ tˑ θˑ kˑ → p t θ k
|
| {k,x} → ˟ / _#
|
| k → z → @ / _j
|
| k → ɣ i / {i,e}_R{i,e}
|
| k → ɣ → U / {A,O,U}_R ! R = j
|
| 42.1.2 Proto-Finnic to Livonian | p t(ʲ) s(ʲ) k → b d(ʲ) z(ʲ) ɡ / ! #_ or adjacent to C[-voice]
|
| 43 Uto-Aztecan | 43.2 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Hopi | k → q / _V[+low]
|
| 43.3 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Luiseño | k → q / #_V[+low]
|
| k → q / an_
|
| k → x / a_
|
| 43.5.1.1 Proto-Mono-Kawaiisu to Kawaiisu | hkʷ hʔ (h)S Sː → w ʔ S[+ voiced] S[- voiced - long] / V_V
|
| k → ∅ / V_wV
|
| 43.5.1.2 Proto-Mono-Kawaiisu to Mono | (h)k → (h)q / _{o,a} ! ɨ_
|
| kw → q / _a
|
| (h)kʷ → hq(ʷ) / _{o,a}
|
| 43.6 Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Tohono O’odham | kʷ → b
|
| 45 Yuman-Cochimı́ | 45.1.1 Proto-Pai to Chapai | kʷ → k / _#
|
| 45.1.2 Proto-Pai to Paipai | kʷ xʷ → k x / _#
|
| 45.1.3 Proto-Pai to Tipai | kʷ xʷ → q χ / _# (the paper calls these “back velars”)
|
| 46 Vowel Shifts | 46.16 Development of Proto-Lolo-Burmese -i(C)# and -u(C)# to Lahu | -i -i{p,k} -it -i{m,ŋ} -in → -i -ɨʔ -iʔ -ɛ -ɨ
|
| -u -up -ut -uk -um -un -uŋ → -u -ɔʔ -əʔ -uʔ -ɔ -ə -ɛ
|
| 47 Most-Wanted Sound Changes | 47.1 List 1: Simple Consonant Changes | kʲ ɡʲ → k ɡ (Danish)
|
| 47.2 List 2: Conditional or complex consonant changes | {t,k} → ∅ / V_V (Marathi) probably with voiced stops as intermediates, since they also became silent
|