| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.1.1.1 North Omotic to Bench | x1 → k
|
| x2 → k / #_
|
| x2 s3 → ∅ ʃ / V_V
|
| sx → ʃ
|
| {ʔ,hx} → ∅
|
| 6.1.1.2 North Omotic to Dizin | x1 → k
|
| x2 → k / _#
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| sx → tʃ
|
| 6.1.1.3 North Omotic to Kafa | x1 → k
|
| x2 → k / #_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| 6.1.1.4 North Omotic to Maale | x1 → k
|
| x2 → h / #_
|
| x2 → ɡ / V_V
|
| sx → ʃ
|
| 6.1.1.5 North Omotic to Shekkacho | x1 → k
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| 6.1.1.6 North Omotic to Wolaytta | x1 → k
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| x2 s3 → k ʃ / V_$#
|
| 6.1.1.7 North Omotic to Yemsa | x1 → k
|
| x2 → k / #_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| sx → ʃ
|
| 6.1.1.8 North Omotic to Zayse-Zergulla | x1 → k
|
| x2 → h / #_
|
| x2 → ∅ / V_V
|
| x2 → ɡ / n_
|
| x3 → ɡ / V_#
|
| 6.1.2.1 South Omotic to Aari | {x1,x2} → ɡ
|
| 6.2.1.1.1 Proto-Agaw to Awngi | {x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ∅ / at word boundaries
|
| {x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ɣ(ʷ)
|
| 6.2.1.1.2 Proto-Agaw to Blin | {x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ∅ / at word boundaries
|
| 6.2.1.1.3 Proto-Agaw to Kemantney | {x,ɢ}(ʷ) → ∅ / at word boundaries
|
| x → ∅
|
| xʷ ɢʷ → w ɣʷ
|
| 6.2.1.1.4 Proto-Agaw to Xamtanga | {x,ɢ} → ∅
|
| {xʷ,ɢʷ} → ∅ / at word boundaries
|
| {xʷ,ɢʷ} → w / else
|
| 6.2.2.1.2 Proto-Boreafrasian to Egypto-Berber | xw → ɣw → ħ
|
| xV → k / _h
|
| 6.2.2.1.6 Classical Arabic to Cypriot Arabic | k x → c ç / _{j,E}
|
| nx → xː
|
| 6.2.2.1.10 Classical Arabic to Hassāniyya Arabic | x → χ (conjectured based upon the following but not outright stated in the article)
|
| 6.2.2.1.15 Classical Arabic to Sa‘idi Arabic | q x ɣ → ɡ χ ʁ
|
| 6.2.2.1.17 Classical Arabic to Tunisian Arabic | dʒ x ɣ → ʒ χ ʁ
|
| 6.2.2.1.18 Proto-Semitic to Biblical Hebrew | x ɣ kˤ → ħ ʕ q
|
| 6.2.2.1.19 Biblical Hebrew to Modern Israeli Hebrew | x ʕ → χ ʔ
|
| 7 Algonquian | 7.1 Proto-Algonquian to Kennebec River Abenaki | {x,h}S → Sː
|
| 7.2 Proto-Algonquian to St. Francis Abenaki | {x,h}S → Sː
|
| 7.4 Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot | x → sː / {i,#e,ja,ke}_
|
| x → sː / e(ː)_s
|
| 7.11 Proto-Algonquian to Munsee Delaware | θ ʃ x → x s h / _{p,k}
|
| x → χʷ / o(ː)_{V,#}
|
| 7.13 Proto-Algonquian to Miami-Illinois | {θ,ʃ,tʃ,ç,x,ʔ} → h / _C
|
| 7.14 Proto-Algonquian to Mi’kmaq | x → ∅ / _{p,k}
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.5.1.2 Proto-Kypchak to Kyrgyz | x → q
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.2 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Batak | {ts,ʈ} {ɟ͡ʝ,ɖ} {lʲ,ɲ} {ʔ,x,s,h} ʀ → t d n ∅ r (velar fricative is conjectured; changes → d “unsure”)
|
| 10.4.1 Proto-Micronesian to Marshallese | {ç,s} x → tᵚ ∅
|
| 11 Northeast Caucasian | 11.1.3 Proto-Avar-Andic to Avar | s sː ɬː x xː → {s,ʃ} x ɬ {x,h} x
|
| 11.3 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Khinalug | sː ɬ(ː) xː → h xʲ x
|
| 11.5.1 Proto-Lezgic to Agul | ɬ(ː) xː → xʲ x
|
| 11.5.2 Proto-Lezgic to Archi | sː xː → {sː,h} x
|
| 11.5.3 Proto-Lezgic to Lezghi | ʃː ɬ ɬː x xː → ɣʲ j ʃ ɣ x
|
| 11.5.4 Proto-Lezgic to Rutul | sː ɬ(ː) xː → {ħ,xʲ} {sː,h} x
|
| 11.5.5 Proto-Lezgic to Tabassaran | ɬ {ʃː,ɬː} xː → xʲ ʃ x
|
| 11.5.6 Proto-Lezgic to Udi | {ɬ(ː),xː} → x
|
| 11.6 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Nakh | ʃː ɬː xː → ʃ ɬ x
|
| 11.7 Proto-Northeast Caucasian to Proto-Tsezic | s xː → z x
|
| 11.7.2 Proto-Tsezic to Tsez | sː ʃ ʃː ɬ ɬː x → s ʒ ʃ l ɬ ɣ
|
| 12 Northwest Caucasian | 12.1 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Abazgi | xʷʲ ɣʷʲ → sʷ zʷ (*ɣʷʲ is marked as dubious)
|
| 12.2 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Proto-Circassian | xʲ ɣʲ → ɕ ʑ
|
| xʷ → x(ʷ)
|
| ɡʲʷ xʲʷ ɣʲʷ(?) → ɡʷ xʷ ʁʷ
|
| 12.2.1 Proto-Circassian to Adyghe | xʷ χʲ → f~ɸ? ħ
|
| 12.3 Proto-Northwest Caucasian to Ubykh | k kʼ ɡ x ɣ → kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ ɕ ɣ~ʁ
|
| xʲ ɣʲ → sʲ zʲ
|
| kʷː xʷ → ɡʷ x
|
| kʲʷː xʲʷ ɣʲʷ(?) → ɡʲ kʲʼ xʲ ʁʲ
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.4.1 Proto-Indo-European to Avestan | hx → ∅
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | xt → iθ
|
| 17.7 Proto-Indo-European to Common Germanic | f θ s x → β ð z ɣ “(Except initially or following IE stress)”
|
| 17.7.2.1.2 Old English to Kentish Middle English | {eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
|
| 17.7.2.1.3 Old English to Midlands Middle English | {eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
|
| 17.7.2.1.8 Old English to Northern Middle English | {eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
|
| 17.7.2.1.9 Early Northern Middle English to Scots | {ɸ,x} → ∅ / _# (seems to be sporadic)
|
| 17.7.2.1.10 Old English to Scots | xw → ʍ
|
| 17.7.2.1.12 Old English to Southern Middle English | {eɑh,eɑç,eɑx,eɑʝ,eɑɣ} → ɑw
|
| 17.7.2.2 West Germanic to Old Low Franconian | xs → sː
|
| 17.7.2.2.2 Middle Dutch to Modern Dutch | — x ɣ → {x,χ} {ɣ,x,χ} / in northern dialects
|
| — x ɣ → ç ʝ / in southern dialects (the articles use velar phonemes here but describes them as “front velar”; based on the description and on representations in other articles, the palatal phonemes are used here)
|
| 17.7.2.3 Middle High German to Standard German | x → k / _s
|
| 17.7.3 Common Germanic to Proto-Norse | z x → ʀ h
|
| 17.8.1 Proto-Indo-European to Aeolian Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.2 Proto-Indo-European to Attic Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| ɡ x → j ç / _{ɛ,i}
|
| 17.8.3 Proto-Indo-European to Boeotian Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.4 Proto-Indo-European to Coan Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.5 Proto-Indo-European to Cretan Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.6 Proto-Indo-European to Doric Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.7 Proto-Indo-European to Elian Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.8 Proto-Indo-European to Ionic Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.9 Proto-Indo-European to Laconian Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.8.10 Proto-Indo-European to Mycenaean Greek | {Hx,m̩,n̩} → a
|
| 17.11 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Slavic | k ɡ x → tʃ ʒ ʃ / _{e(ː)(i),i(ː)}
|
| k ɡ x → ts dz s / _{æː,i}
|
| k ɡ x → ts dz s / “After some syllables with front vowels”
|
| kj ɡj xj → tʃ ʒ ʃ
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | sk x → ɕtɕ ɕ / _E
|
| x → ɕ / E_
|
| {xv,pv} → f
|
| x → ∅ / _r “in the word ‘robak’”
|
| 17.12.1 Proto-Italic to Proto-Latino-Falsican | x → h
|
| xʷ → f
|
| xʷ → {w,ɡʷ}
|
| 17.12.1.1.10 Vulgar Latin to Spanish | {k,ɡ} → x → j / _{t,s,n,l}
|
| x → h
|
| 17.12.2 Proto-Italic to Proto-Sibellian | {ɡ́ʰ,x} {ɸ,θ,ɡʷʰ} → h f
|
| 20 Khoisan | 20.1.1 Proto-Khoe to Ç̬Ana | !x → x
|
| 20.1.2 Proto-Khoe to ÇAni | !x → !x~x
|
| 20.1.3 Proto-Khoe to Buga | !x → x
|
| 20.1.4 Proto-Khoe to Kxoe | !x !̃n → x ŋɡj~!̃
|
| 20.1.5 Proto-Khoe to Nama | {ǀˀ,ǀxʼ} → ǀ
|
| ǂ {ǂ̃n,ǂˀ,ǂxʼ} → ǂɡ ǂ
|
| {ǁˀ,ǁxʼ} → ǁ
|
| ts dz kxʼ → {ts,s} d ∅
|
| 20.1.8 Proto-Khoe to Teti | ! !ˀ !̬ !̃(n) !x → k ∅ ɡ ŋ x
|
| ǁˀ ǁxʼ → {ǁˀ,∅} ǁˀ
|
| ts dz kxʼ → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s} z kʼ
|
| 20.1.9 Proto-Khoe to TsÊixa | ǀ̃(n) ǀxʼ → j ǀˀ
|
| ! !ˀ !̬ !̃(n) !x → k ∅ ɡ ŋɡ x
|
| ǂ̃n ǂxʼ → ɲ ǂˀ
|
| ǁxʼ → ǁˀ
|
| ts dz kxʼ → {ts~tsʰ,ts,s} z kʼ
|
| 20.1.10 Proto-Khoe to Ç̬Ui | !̃ !x → !̃(n) !x~x
|
| 25 Macro-Panoan | 25.1.1 Proto-Tacanan to Cavineña | x → k
|
| 25.1.3 Proto-Tacanan to Reyesano | ɕ x → ð h
|
| 25.1.4 Proto-Tacanan to Tacana | x → h / #_
|
| x → {h,∅}
|
| 28 Muskogean | 28.1 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Eastern Muskogean | xʷ → f
|
| 28.1.1 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Alabama | ts x → s h / _C
|
| 28.1.2 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Creek | V0xV0 → V0ː
|
| x → w / a_o
|
| x → h
|
| 28.1.3 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Hitchiti | x → j / V0_V0
|
| x → h
|
| 28.1.4 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Korasati | x → h
|
| 28.1.5 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Mikasuri | x → j / V0_V0
|
| ʃ x → ts h
|
| 28.1.6 Proto-Eastern Muskogean to Seminole | ʃ x → ts h
|
| 28.2 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Western Muskogean | x → h
|
| xʷ → h / %_{o,i}(C)#
|
| 28.2.1 Proto-Western Muskogean to Chickasaw | xʷɬ → ɬː
|
| 28.2.2 Proto-Western Muskogean to Choctaw | xʷ → h / V_V
|
| 29 Na-Dene | 29.1 Proto-Na-Dene to Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak | kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz s
|
| 29.1.1 Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak to Proto-Athabaskan | x xʷ → {xʲ,j} {ʂ,ʐ}
|
| 29.1.1.1.1 Proto-Athabaskan to Ahtna | {ʃ(ʷ),x} → s
|
| 29.1.1.1.8 Proto-Athabaskan to Dena’ina | {ʃ(ʷ),x {z,ʒ(ʷ),ɣ} → s j
|
| 29.1.1.1.13 Proto-Athabaskan to Hupa | {qʷ,xʷ} qʷʼ ɢʷ ɣʷ → x(ʷ) q(ʷ)ʼ ɢ(ʷ) w
|
| xʲ → w
|
| 29.1.1.1.19 Proto-Athabaskan to Proto-Southern Athabaskan | t n x → d n h / in prefixes relating to word derivation
|
| 29.1.1.1.21 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Kiowa Apache | {xʲ,j}ʔ {x,ɣ}ʔ → ∅ h(ʔ) / _#
|
| x ɣ → h ∅ / _#
|
| xʲ j → ʃ ʒ
|
| 29.1.1.1.22 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Jicarilla | xʲ xʔ j ɣʔ → h ʔ ∅ ʔ / E_#
|
| xʲ xʔ j ɡʔ → ih iʔ i iʔ / _#
|
| xʲʔ jʔ → h ʔ / _#
|
| xʲ → s
|
| 29.1.1.1.23 Proto-Eastern Southern Athabaskan to Lipan | xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
|
| {xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
|
| xʲ → s
|
| 29.1.1.1.25 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to Chiricahua | xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
|
| {xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
|
| 29.1.1.1.26 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to Mescalero | xʲ j → ʃ ∅ / _#
|
| {xʲ,j}ʔ → ∅ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ} → ∅ / _(ʔ)#
|
| 29.1.1.1.27 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to Navajo | xʲ(ʔ) j(ʔ) → h ʔ / _#
|
| x ɣ → h ʔ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ}ʔ → {ʔ,ɡ} (Hoijer notes a reflex “-g-”)
|
| xʲ → s
|
| 29.1.1.1.28 Proto-Western Southern Athabaskan to San Carlos | x(ʲ) {j,ɣ} → h ∅ / _#
|
| xʲʔ jʔ → h ʔ / _#
|
| {x,ɣ}ʔ → ɡ
|
| 29.1.2 Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak to Eyak | kʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ xʲ → ts tsʼ dz {s,ʃ}
|
| x → ∅ / ʃ_
|
| $ → xʷ → {x,s}
|
| 29.2 Proto-Na-Dene to Tlingit | xʲ → x
|
| x(ʷ) → x
|
| x → ∅ / {s,ʃ}_
|
| 33 Penutian | 33.2.1 Proto-Wintuan to Nomlaki | tʃʰ kʰ qʰ {x,χ} → tʃ k(ʰ) {kʰ,qʰ,χ} kʰ
|
| 33.2.2 Proto-Wintuan to Patwin | x χ → s h
|
| 33.2.3 Proto-Wintuan to South Patwin | x → s
|
| 35 Salishan | 35.1.3 Proto-Central Salish to Cowichan Halkomelem | xʲ → ʃ
|
| 35.1.5 Proto-Central Salish to Klallam | xʲ → {s,ʃ} (the latter mainly from borrowings?)
|
| 35.1.6 Proto-Central Salish to Lushootseed | xʲ → ʃ
|
| 35.1.7 Proto-Central Salish to Nooksack | xʲ → ʃ
|
| 35.1.9 Proto-Central Salish to Saanich Northern Straits | xʲ → s
|
| 35.1.10 Proto-Central Salish to Songish Northern Straits | xʲ → {s,ʃ} (the latter mainly from borrowings?)
|
| 35.1.11 Proto-Central Salish to Sooke Northern Straits | xʲ → {s,ʃ} (the latter mainly from borrowings?)
|
| 35.1.12 Proto-Central Salish to Pentlatch | xʲ → ʃ
|
| 35.1.13 Proto-Central Salish to Sechelt | xʲ → ʃ
|
| 35.1.14 Proto-Central Salish to Sqamish | xʲ → ʃ
|
| 35.1.15 Proto-Central Salish to Twana | xʲ → ʃ
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.1.1 Late Middle Chinese to Old Mandarin | xɦ → ∅ / _j(w){?,ia,a(ta)}
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.1 Proto-Siouan-Iroquoian to Proto-Iroquoian | x → ∅ / _k
|
| x → h / _C ! C_C
|
| x → k
|
| 37.1.2.2.1 Huron to Wyandot | xʷ → w
|
| x → ∅ / _{i,j}
|
| x → e / #_r
|
| x → j / _V
|
| x → ∅
|
| 37.2 Proto-Siouan-Iroquoian to Proto-Siouan | x → ç / _{i,u}
|
| 37.2.1 Proto-Siouan to Catawba | ç x → x ʃ
|
| 37.2.2 Proto-Siouan to Dakota | ç x → x {ʃ,ʒ}
|
| x → ʔ / ”Vk_
|
| 37.2.4 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago | ç x → x {ʃ,ʒ}
|
| 37.2.4.1 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Čiwere | x → ∅ / _k
|
| x → ∅ / k_”V
|
| 37.2.4.2 Proto-Čiwere-Winnebago to Winnebago | pr {sr,xr} sn km → pV0rV0 ʃV0rV0 sV0nV0 kV0wV0
|
| xk → ɡ
|
| 37.2.5 Proto-Siouan to Proto-Crow-Hidatsa | s ç {tʲ,x} → ts x ʃ
|
| 37.2.5.1 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Crow | x → ∅ / k_”V
|
| 37.2.5.2 Proto-Crow-Hidatsa to Hidatsa | sk kx → tsk hk / _”V
|
| 37.2.6.3 Proto-Dhegiha to Osage | {ç,x} → z (sporadic)
|
| xk → (ʃ)k / _”V
|
| xk → ɡ / ”V_
|
| x → ʔ / k_”V
|
| 37.2.6.4 Proto-Dhegiha to Quapaw | x → ʒ (*)
|
| 37.2.7.1 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Biloxi | kx → xk / ”V_
|
| 37.2.7.2 Proto-Ohio-Valley to Ofo | s {ç,x} → f s
|
| x → s / _k
|
| kx → sk / ”V_
|
| kx → s
|
| 38 Tai-Kadai | 38.1.1.1 Proto-Tai to Ahom | x → ∅ / _r
|
| xʷ Kʷ → {kʰ,x} K(ʷ)
|
| 38.1.1.2 Proto-Tai to Saek | {ɡ,x} → kʰ
|
| 38.1.1.3 Proto-Tai to Central Tai | ɡ x → k kʰ
|
| xr → kʰ{l,r}
|
| xʷ ɣʷ → kʷʰ {v,w}
|
| 38.1.1.4 Proto-Tai to North Tai | xr x {x,ɣ}ʷ → r̥ h {w,v,h}
|
| 38.1.1.5 Proto-Tai to Southwest Tai | xr → h
|
| x → kʰ
|
| 38.1.1.5.1 Southwest Tai to Lao | xʷ ɣʷ → kʷ ɡʷ
|
| 38.1.1.5.3 Southwest Tai to Shan | xʷ → kʷ
|
| 38.1.1.5.4 Southwest Tai to Siamese | xʷ ɣʷ → kʷ ɡʷ
|
| 38.1.1.5.5 Southwest Tai to Black Tai | xʷ ɣʷ → kʷ ɡʷ
|
| 40 Totozoquean | 40.1 Proto-Totozoquean to Proto-Mixe-Zoquean | x {ɬ,tɬ} → h j
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1 Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic | x → @ / _C
|
| 42.1.1 Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic | ixi uxu → øː oː
|
| xi → @ / else
|
| x → w / {U,O}_C
|
| x → j / {I,E}_C
|
| 42.1.1.1 Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish | xk → kː (even across word boundaries)
|
| (t(ː))sn kx(tx) rn ln → sː xː rː lː
|
| {z,x(ː)} → h
|
| 42.1.1.1.1 Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish | {k,x} → ˟ / _#
|
| 45 Yuman-Cochimı́ | 45.1.2 Proto-Pai to Paipai | xʷ → w / tʃ_
|
| kʷ xʷ → k x / _#
|
| 45.1.3 Proto-Pai to Tipai | kʷ xʷ → q χ / _# (the paper calls these “back velars”)
|