| 6 Afro-Asiatic | 6.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic to Proto-Omotic | a(ː) → e(ː) / _{ʕ,q}$
|
| a → o / #Cw_{(d)l,s3}
|
| 6.1.1 Proto-Omotic to North Omotic | a → o / #{z,dʒ}_P
|
| 6.2.2.1.6 Classical Arabic to Cypriot Arabic | a → i / _C(C), when stressed
|
| {u,a,i} → ∅ / _%, when stressed (short only)
|
| a → a / _C[+ dorsal]
|
| a → e / _(C)(C)i(ː)
|
| a → {u,o} / P_
|
| a → {u,o} / _P
|
| a → ∅ / _t, in the feminine ending
|
| 6.2.2.1.7 Classical Arabic to Egyptian Arabic | aj aw → eː oː / in U[+closed]
|
| a(ː) → ɑ(ː) / near emphatics
|
| a(ː) → ɑ(ː) / if ɑ(ː) is elsewhere in the word
|
| a(ː) → æ(ː) / else (sometimes it seems more like ɛ(ː) to me)
|
| 6.2.2.1.10 Classical Arabic to Hassāniyya Arabic | aj aw → eː(ʲ) oː(ʷ) (sometimes, the article is unclear)
|
| 6.2.2.1.11 Classical Arabic to Iraqi Arabic | aj aw → eː oː
|
| 6.2.2.1.12 Classical Arabic to Eastern Libyan Arabic | aj aw → e(ː,j) o(ː,w)
|
| 6.2.2.1.13 Classical Arabic to Western Libyan Arabic | aj aw → eː oː
|
| 6.2.2.1.14 Classical Arabic to Moroccan Arabic | {a,i} → ə / short only; the change of short a blocked for some speakers before ħ ʕ
|
| 6.2.2.1.17 Classical Arabic to Tunisian Arabic | a → ɑ / near emphatics
|
| a → ɛ (sometimes)
|
| aj aw → {aj,eː,iː aw,oː,uː}
|
| 6.2.2.1.18 Proto-Semitic to Biblical Hebrew | — a → aː / _$
|
| — a → {a,ɛ} (not common)
|
| — aw → aːw
|
| — aj → eː / _$
|
| — aj → ɛː / _#
|
| — a → ∅ / _#
|
| — a → _$%%(…)”
|
| — a → ə / _R if ə in an adjacent syllable
|
| — a → ə / R_ if ə in an adjacent syllable
|
| — a i → aː eː / _%”
|
| — aj aw → eː oː
|
| at → aː / _# (in feminine noun endings)
|
| 7 Algonquian | 7.1 Proto-Algonquian to Kennebec River Abenaki | a → e / #C_OO
|
| a → ∅ / #_OO
|
| 7.2 Proto-Algonquian to St. Francis Abenaki | a → ∅ / #_OO
|
| 7.3 Proto-Algonquian to Proto-Arapaho-Atsina | a(ː) → o(ː)
|
| 7.4 Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot | {a,e,i} → o / _kʷ
|
| {jiː,ja,ahi} {owaː,awa,awe} awi {iːwa,eːwa,aji,aje,ani} → i oː o(ji) iː / C_C
|
| a → o / _w
|
| a → i / ! at word boundaries
|
| 7.5 Proto-Algonquian to Cheyenne | o a → e o
|
| 7.6 Proto-Algonquian to Northern East Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| a → i / in some unaccented syllables (short only)
|
| 7.7 Proto-Algonquian to Southern East Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| 7.8 Proto-Algonquian to Plains Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| 7.9 Proto-Algonquian to Swampy Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| 7.10 Proto-Algonquian to Woods Cree | ja → aː / C_
|
| 7.11 Proto-Algonquian to Munsee Delaware | {a,ə} → ∅ / _{x,h} “in the odd-numbered of any sequence of one or more short-vowel open syllables”; such vowels are considered “weak”
|
| 7.12 Proto-Algonquian to Menominee | a → o / $am_w
|
| wa ja → uə̯ iə̯ / C_
|
| 7.14 Proto-Algonquian to Mi’kmaq | (aw)aha → aː
|
| {awa,iwa,iwi} → uː
|
| {o,a}wi → oː
|
| {aja,iha,iji,ihi,ija} → iː
|
| 7.15 Proto-Algonquian to Ojibwe | ja → iː / C_C
|
| 7.17 Proto-Algonquian to Shawnee | wa → o / #_
|
| 8 Altaic | 8.1 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Japonic | a → ə / _Ce
|
| a → i / _Ci
|
| a → u / _Cu
|
| {a,e,o,æ} i u y ø → ə i ua {u,ə} {ə,u} / _Ce
|
| {a,æ,e,ø,i,y} o → i u / _Ci
|
| 8.1.1 Early Middle Japanese to Modern Japanese | au iu uu eu ou → ɔː juː uː joː oː
|
| 8.3 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Mongolic | a → {a,i} / _Ce
|
| a → {a,e} / _Ci
|
| a → {a,i,e} / _Co
|
| a → {a,o,u} / _Cu
|
| a e i o u æ ø y → {a,i} {e,ja} {e,i} {ø,y,o} {o,u,y} {i,a,e} {e,ø} {ø,y,o,u} / _Ce
|
| a e u æ ø y → {a,e} {e,i} {y,ø} {i,e} {i,e,ø} {ø,y,o,u} / _Ci
|
| a e o i æ ø y → {a,i,e} {a,e} u {o,u} e {ø,y,o,u} {o,u} / _Co
|
| a e {o,u} æ ø y → {a,o,u} {e,a} {o,u} {a,o,u} {e,i,u} {i,o,u,y,ø} / _Cu
|
| 8.5 Proto-Altaic to Proto-Turkic | a ø → {a,ʌ} a / P_Ca
|
| a e i u æ ø y → a {a,ʌ,e} {ɯ,i} {u,o} {ia,ja,ɛ} {ia,ja} ɯ / _Ca
|
| a {e,i} o u æ ø y → {ɛ,a} ɛ {ø,o} {y,u} {ia,ja,ɛ} {ia,ja} {y,ø} / _Ci
|
| a e i æ ø y → {o,ja,aj} {ʌ,ɜ} ɯ {ia,ja} {o,u} {u,o} / _Co
|
| 8.5.1 Proto-Turkic to Proto-Kypchak | a → æ / ! _B
|
| 8.5.1.2 Proto-Kypchak to Kyrgyz | {u,ɯ}w {i,y}w aw {æ,e}w → uː yː oː øː
|
| 8.5.2 Proto-Turkic to Sakha | a{ɡ̌(ɯ),b} {o{ɡ̌,b},aɡ̌u} u{ɡ̌,b} → ɰa wo uː
|
| 9 Austroasiatic | 9.1.2 Proto-Vietic to Middle Vietnamese | a ɔ → ɨə uə
|
| 9.1.2.2 Middle Vietnamese to Saigon Vietnamese | a → aː / _{w,j}
|
| 10 Austronesian | 10.1.1 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan | — aj aw → ej ow / _#
|
| — aj aw → e ow / _#
|
| 10.1.1.1 Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan to Balinese | a → ə
|
| 10.1.1.2 Proto-Bali-Sasak-Sumbawan to Sasak | a →ə / _# (Meno-mene and Mriak-mriku only)
|
| 10.1.2.5 Proto-Philippine to Ifugao | ay → e / _#
|
| 10.1.2.7.1 Proto-Kalamian to Agutaynen | aɪ ai → ɪɪ ii (not sure if there’s a long vowel or hiatus here)
|
| 10.1.2.7.2 Proto-Kalamian to Karamiananen | aɪ ai → ɪɪ ii (not sure if there’s a long vowel or hiatus here)
|
| 10.1.2.7.3 Proto-Kalamian to Kalamian Tagbanwa | aɪ ai → ɪɪ ii (not sure if there’s a long vowel or hiatus here)
|
| 10.2 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Batak | {a,e} → o / _w#
|
| a → e / _j#
|
| 10.2.1 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Chamic | wa → u / #_
|
| a → aː / _C# (sometimes)
|
| 10.2.2 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Chamorro | a → æ “(in some forms; environment and conditioning unclear)”
|
| 10.2.3 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Malayic | — aj aw → i u / _#
|
| — aj aw → aj aw / _#
|
| 10.2.4 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Malayo-Javanic | — aw aj → əw əj / _#
|
| — aw aj → aw aj / _#
|
| 10.2.4.1 Proto-Malayo-Javanic to Javanese | — aw aj → e ó / _#
|
| 10.2.4.3 Proto-Malayo-Javanic to Sundanese | — aw aj → o aj / _#
|
| 10.2.5 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Palauan | aj aw uj → e o i
|
| wa → o / #_ when unstressed
|
| {aw,əw} → o / _#
|
| 10.2.6 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-North Sarawak | a → ə / _UU(U…)#
|
| 10.2.6.1 Proto-North Sarawak to Kiput | ai au → ai̯ au̯ / _#
|
| ai au → ɛː ɔː / _…#
|
| a → i / O[+voiced]…_(C)# “(blocked if there was an intervening nasal, and sometimes if there was an intervening voiceless stop or liquid)”
|
| 10.2.6.2.1 Proto-Kenyah to Òma Lóngh | a → o / _# “(not in all forms)”
|
| a → ɛ / {t,n}_#
|
| ai̯ au̯ → ɛ ɔ
|
| 10.2.6.3 Proto-Malayic to Minangkabau | a → o / _(C…)#
|
| — a u → e uj / _{t,s}#
|
| — a → o / _p#
|
| 10.3 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Oceanic | aw → o / _#
|
| 10.3.2 Proto-Oceanic to Hiw | a → e / _CV[+ mid] (sporadic)
|
| a → e / _Ci (sporadic)
|
| a(C)V[+ high] a(C)V[+ mid] aCa → ɔ(C) a(C) {ɔ,a}(C)ə
|
| e(C){V[- low]} e(C)a → e(C) e(C)ə
|
| i(C)V[+ high] i(C)V[+ mid] i(C)a → i(C) i(C)ə {e,i}(C)ə
|
| o(C)V[+ high] o(C)V[+ mid] o(C)a → ɵ(C) o(C) ɔ(C)ə
|
| u(C)V[+ high] u(C)e u(C)o u(C)a → {u,i}(C) u(C)ə e(C)ə {u,ɵ}(C)ə
|
| 10.3.3 Proto-Oceanic to Lemerig | — aCV[+ high] → {ɛ,œ}C
|
| — aCa → {ɘ,a}C
|
| ia → ɪ “(only somoetimes?)”
|
| 10.3.4 Proto-Oceanic to Mwotlap | u a → ʊ ɛ / _CV[+ high]
|
| aCV[+ high] → ɪ / when stressed unless primarily stressed
|
| 10.3.5.8 Proto-New Caledonia to Proto-Yunaga | au ai → ɔ ɛ
|
| a → {ɛ,e} “in some words”
|
| 10.3.7 Proto-Oceanic to Shark Bay | ”a → i / _CV[- high]
|
| ”a → e / _CV[+ high]
|
| 10.3.8 Proto-Oceanic to Tolomako | a → e (rare?)
|
| 10.3.11 Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Southern Vanuatu | a → e / _(C)i
|
| a → ə / _Ca
|
| 10.3.11.1 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Anejom | ai → i / _C
|
| ua → ou
|
| au → {u,o} “sometimes”
|
| a → o / P_ “[tendency]”
|
| a → o / _P “[tendency]”
|
| 10.3.11.2 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Proto-Erromango | a → i / _CV[+ high]
|
| 10.3.11.2.1 Proto-Erromango to Sye | a → o / {w,m,ŋ}_
|
| a → e / _#
|
| 10.3.11.3 Proto-Southern Vanuatu to Proto-Tanna | a → o / _{P,Cu}
|
| a → o / P_
|
| a → e / _Ci
|
| a → ə / _Ca
|
| 10.3.12 Proto-Oceanic to Vera’a | a(C)i a(C)u → {a,ɛ}(C) {ɔ,a,ɛ}(C)
|
| a(C){o,e} → a(C)
|
| oCa → ɔCɔ
|
| oa {ae,ea} → uɔ iɛ
|
| 10.4.1 Proto-Micronesian to Marshallese | a → ɜ / _wo
|
| 10.5 Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Ongan | u a ə → {u,o} {a,e} e
|
| aj → e
|
| 10.5.2 Proto-Ongan to Onge | aw → o
|
| 14 Elamo-Dravidian | 14.3.1 Standard Tamil to Colloquial Tamil | aj → eː “(exception: never finally in monosyllables, never initially in multisyllabic words)”
|
| avu aji → aw aj
|
| am an {aːm,aːn} → õ æ̃ ã / _#
|
| 15 Eskimo-Aleut | 15.1 Proto-Eskimo-Aleut to Proto-Aleut | a → i / i_
|
| 15.2.1 Proto-Eskimo to Barrow Iñupiaq | adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
|
| 15.2.2 Proto-Eskimo to Greenlandic Iñupiaq | adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
|
| 15.2.3 Proto-Eskimo to Mackenzie Iñupiaq | adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
|
| 15.2.4 Proto-Eskimo to Wales Iñupiaq | adʒ → i / _a (except in #U?)
|
| 15.2.5 Proto-Eskimo to Kuskokwim Yup’ik | i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
|
| a → ∅ / _dʒa, except in #U
|
| 15.2.6 Proto-Eskimo to Nunivak Yup’ik | a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
|
| i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
|
| a → ∅ / _dʒa (except in #U?)
|
| 15.2.7 Proto-Eskimo to Siberian Yup’ik | a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
|
| a → ∅ / _dʒa (except in #U?)
|
| 15.2.8 Proto-Eskimo to Unaaliq Yup’ik | a → ∅ / C[+velar]_C[+velar]
|
| i a u → ii aa uu / C_ in U[+open -initial -final] such that U[+open]_
|
| a → ∅ / _dʒa (except in #U?)
|
| 16 Extended West Papuan | 16.1.1 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Nafri | a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 16.1.2 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Central Sentani | a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 16.1.3 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Eastern Sentani | a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 16.1.4 Proto-Tabla-Sentani to Western Sentani | a → æ / _(C)e
|
| a → æ / i(C)_
|
| 17 Indo-European | 17.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Gheg Albanian | a e i o → {a,e} (j)e {e,i} a
|
| 17.1.2 Proto-Indo-European to Tosk Albanian | a e i o → {a,e} (j)e {e,i} a
|
| 17.2.1 Common Anatolian to Hittite | aj aw → ɛː uː / !_{s,n,r,l}
|
| 17.2.3 Common Anatolian to Lycian | a → e / _U[+e,i]
|
| 17.2.4 Common Anatolian to Lydian | {e,a,o} → ē / _N in ”U[+closed]
|
| {e,a,o} → ā / _N in ”U[+open]
|
| 17.2.5 Common Anatolian to Palaic | a e → aː eː / in ”U[+closed]
|
| 17.3.1 Proto-Indo-European to Artsakh Armenian | ej ia → e ɛa
|
| e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
|
| 17.3.2 Proto-Indo-European to Erevan Armenian | ej ia → e ɛa
|
| e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
|
| 17.3.3 Proto-Indo-European to Istanbul Armenian | ej ia → e ɛa
|
| e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
|
| 17.3.4 Proto-Indo-European to Kharpert Armenian | ej ia → e ɛa
|
| e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
|
| 17.3.5 Proto-Indo-European to Sebastia Armenian | ej ia → e ɛa
|
| e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
|
| 17.3.6 Proto-Indo-European to Southeast Armenian | ej ia → e ɛa
|
| e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
|
| 17.3.7 Proto-Indo-European to Southwest Armenian | ej ia → e ɛa
|
| e oj ɛa → i u ɛ / when unstressed
|
| 17.5.1 Proto-Indo-European to Old Irish | — {ai,oi} → iː / _#
|
| — {a,e}n → eː / _{p t k s}
|
| {au,eu,ou} → oː
|
| — a → e / _#
|
| 17.5.2 Proto-Celtic to Middle Welsh | ai → ɛ
|
| {au,eu,ou} → ∅
|
| a o → ei {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| a → {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)#
|
| {a,o} → e / _(C…)i(ː)
|
| {a,e,o} → ei / _(C…)j
|
| 17.7.1 Common Germanic to Gothic | — aj → a / U_#
|
| 17.7.2.1 West Germanic to Anglo-Frisian | a → ɑ̃ / _N (short only)
|
| a → æː / short only, includes diphthongs ! B or *ã in next syllable
|
| ai au eu → {eː,aː} aː ia
|
| ia iu → jaː juː
|
| a → æ / ! _N or if nasalized, or if *B or *ã in next syllable
|
| 17.7.2.1.2 Old English to Kentish Middle English | æj → aj → ej
|
| 17.7.2.1.3 Old English to Midlands Middle English | æj → aj → ej
|
| 17.7.2.1.4 Midlands Middle English to Early Modern English | a ɑ {ɛ,ɪ,ɤ} → ɑː ɔː ɜː / _ɹ{C,#}
|
| a → ɑː / “in a few words, like ‘father’”
|
| a → æ / else
|
| 17.7.2.1.8 Old English to Northern Middle English | æj → aj → ej
|
| 17.7.2.1.9 Early Northern Middle English to Scots | ol al → ou ɑː → ʌu {ɑ,ɔ}
|
| — ai → ɛi → əi / when stem-final
|
| — a → i / _n (in northern varieties)
|
| — a → e / _n (otherwise)
|
| — a → {ɛ,e} / _rC
|
| — ai oi ui ei au ou iu ɛ(o)u → eː oe əi iː {ɑː,ɔː} ʌu ju j(ʌ)u
|
| — a ɔ u → {a,ɑ} ɔ ʌ
|
| 17.7.2.1.10 Old English to Scots | ai → aː
|
| a → ɪ / “unstressed and/or final”
|
| 17.7.2.1.12 Old English to Southern Middle English | æj → aj → ej
|
| 17.7.2.1.14 Anglo-Frisian to Old Frisian | aj aw ew → {eː,aː} aː ja
|
| 17.7.2.2 West Germanic to Old Low Franconian | ai au → eː oː
|
| jan → en / CC_#
|
| a → ɒ? (→ o) / _ɫ
|
| ai u → ei ʏ / _(C…){i(ː),j} (short only; in the case of [ʏ] at least this was not yet phonemic)
|
| a → ɛ / _(C…){i(ː),j} (conjectured based on date from the “Germanic umlaut” article)
|
| 17.7.2.2.1 Old Low Franconian to Middle Dutch | {ie,ia,io} uo → iə uə
|
| {ol,al} {ar,er} or → ɔu aːr oːr / _C[+dental]
|
| 17.7.2.4 High German Cosonant Shift and Umlaut | a u o → e y ø / _(C…){i(ː),j}
|
| 17.7.2.5 West Germanic to Old Low German | ai au → eː oː
|
| 17.7.3 Common Germanic to Proto-Norse | aβ{u,o} → au
|
| {æ,e}ː(w(a)) → aː
|
| o(u) {ɔ,ɑ,au,ai,æ} {ja,jE,æ(i),e(i),y} → u a i
|
| 17.7.3.1 Proto-Norse to Old Norse | BːB aː{o,a,æ,e} {æ,e}ː{æ,e}ː {æ,e}ːi iːEː → oː aː eː eː iː
|
| a(i) {e,w{æ,i}} {we,ei} (w)ɪ → ey ø y ʏ / w_ ! hw_
|
| a → ∅ / C(C)_{ʀ,s,t,θ}#
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ y yː / _(C)(C)(C)j
|
| a → ∅ / _{ʀ,s,t,θ}#
|
| a → ∅ / CC_U#
|
| a → u / %u / ! in #U
|
| a(ː) ae → o(ː) ɒø / #(C)(C)(C)_(C)(C)(C)u
|
| a → ∅ / _U#
|
| {(j)u,we}ː {o,ɒ}ː aː au → yː øː æː æy
|
| u {o,ɒ} a → y ø æ / _(C)(C)(C)i
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)i
|
| ɒːh{u,a} aːh{u,a} → ɒː aː
|
| {u,we,wi} {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)i
|
| wa we wi → ɒː øː yː / #P_
|
| au {ai,ey,ei} æ{y,i} øy Vː → o e æ ø V / #(C)(C)(C)_CC
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / _(C)(C)(C)j
|
| u {o,ɒ} a au juː → y ø æ æy yː / #(C)(C)_ʀ
|
| ai wi (w)V → eː weː (w)Vː / _h#
|
| {æ,e}i ai au w{ɪ,i} wy wV iu Vː → eː aː oː weː woː wVː eː oː V
|
| ai → aː / _r
|
| ai → aː / _h{C,V}
|
| a → e / _i
|
| a → e / _{i,j,Ḱ}
|
| au → ɒ / j_
|
| 17.7.3.1.1 Old Norse to Early Icelandic | u o a ø y e i → uː oː aː øi yː ei iː / _{ɲc,ɲɟ,ŋk,ŋɡ}
|
| u o a øː eː y i → ʏɪ oi ai øi ei yː iː / _j
|
| 17.7.3.1.2 Old Norse to Orkney Norn | u a e eː → ʌ ɑ ɪ ɛ / _Cː
|
| o a → ø ɛ / _(C)(C)i
|
| au → (ɔ)u
|
| a aː → ɛ øː / _r
|
| a → ɔ / _{l,nd}C
|
| ja → i
|
| 17.7.3.1.3 Old Norse to Shetland Norn | {u,o}(ː) a aː {ɒ,œ,y} e i(ː) → {o,ɔ}(i) æ(i) {ɔ,ɒ}(i) {o,ɔ}(i) {æ,e} / _{Ḱ,Cʲ}
|
| a → ∅ / C[+ dental/alveolar]_u
|
| a → {o,ɔ} / _{K,r} (! K = w ?)
|
| au → {o,ɔ,ɒ} / j_
|
| au → j{o,ɔ}
|
| 17.9 Proto-Indo-European to Hittite | {uː,eu,au} → u
|
| 17.10.1 Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Indo-Aryan | uʐ aʐ iʐ → uː əː iː
|
| 17.10.1.1 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Central Middle Indo-Aryan | a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
|
| ah → o
|
| 17.10.1.2 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Eastern Middle Indo-Aryan | a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
|
| ah → e
|
| 17.10.1.3 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Northwestern Middle Indo-Aryan | a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
|
| ah → o
|
| 17.10.1.4 Proto-Indo-Aryan to Western Middle Indo-Aryan | a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o
|
| ah → o
|
| 17.10.1.5.1 Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit | au aːu ai aːi → au oː ai eː / ! _V
|
| 17.11 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Slavic | {a,o,ə} → e / j_
|
| {a,o,ə} → o
|
| {ai,oi} → i / j_
|
| {ai,oi} → æː
|
| {a(ː)u,o(ː)u} e(ː)u → u ju
|
| {e(ː),i(ː)} {a(ː),o(ː),u(ː)} → ẽ õ / _N$
|
| 17.11.1 Proto-Slavic to Polish | a ɛ i ɔ u ɨ ã → aː ɛː iː ɔː uː ɨː ãː / _{C/U}[+voiced][lost yer] (i.e., a voiced consonant or a cluster with one)
|
| ajɛ → ɛː in adjectives, aː in verbs
|
| {aja,ɔja} {ɔjɛ,ɨjɛ} ɨjɛ → aː ɛː iː
|
| {aja,ɛja,ьja,ɔja} → aː
|
| {ɛ,a} → ɔ (sporadic)
|
| 17.12.1.1 Proto-Indo-European to Latin | aj → ai → eː (in rustic dialects)
|
| aj → ai → ae
|
| aw → oː (in rustic dialects)
|
| aw → au
|
| a o → e u / %(C)(C)_C(C)% when unstressed
|
| a → e → i / %(C)(C)_ŋ when unstressed
|
| a → e → u / %(C)(C)_ɫ when unstressed
|
| ai → ei → iː / %(C)(C)_ when unstressed
|
| a → e / _C(C)#
|
| {ai,ei,oi} → ei → iː / _(C)(C)#
|
| 17.12.1.1.1 Classical Latin vs. Vulgar Latin | {e,ai} → ɛ
|
| 17.12.1.1.2 Latin to Catalan | au → a / _%”u
|
| ae au → e ɔ / stressed
|
| ae au → e o / _%”V
|
| ja → je / #_ (irregular)
|
| a → e / “in the penult”
|
| {i,e(ː),ae} → ∅ / _(C)#
|
| {a,o} → ∅ / #_ (rare)
|
| aj → ej → ee → e (irregular)
|
| aj → ej / _ʃ when stressed (irregular)
|
| 17.12.1.1.3 Latin to French | — (a)e → è
|
| — {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e
|
| — {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e
|
| a → ə / intertonic
|
| (ɛ)au → ɔ
|
| a → ə / #{tʃ,dʒ}_(%…)” in U[+open]
|
| a → ɛ / in U[+open] “(but a following ʎ creates a [closed] syllable)”
|
| a → ə
|
| ai → e / _#
|
| ai iɛɪ → ɛ i
|
| {aı̃,eı̃} → ɛ̃
|
| 17.12.1.1.4 Vulgar Latin to Italian | au → u / #_ (sporadically, e.g. audire → udire)
|
| au → o
|
| 17.12.1.1.5 Latin to Portuguese | au → a / _%”u
|
| au → o
|
| {i(ː),e(ː),ae} → e / _#
|
| ae → ɛ / stressed
|
| aɫ → o
|
| a → ∅ / ”ɔ_#
|
| a → e / _j when stressed
|
| 17.12.1.1.6 Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal | — a → a / _N (Rouergue, Limousin, Auvergne, Dauphiné)
|
| — a → a / _# in monosyllables and oxytones (Rouergue, Limousin, Auvergne, Dauphiné)
|
| — a → å (I have no idea what is going on here. Grandgent seems to distinguish an open and close /a/, and I have listed his open a as /å/, which seems to have been distinct from /ɔ/, but beyond this section it doesn’t really seem to matter very much)
|
| — {a,œ,e,i} → e (here, 〈œ〉 denotes the reflex of the Latin vowel written this way, not a front rounded vowel)
|
| — au → a / _(C…)u
|
| — a → o in most dialects except Gascon and Languedoc; final -as remained in “Limousin and some others”
|
| 17.12.1.1.7 Vulgar Latin to Rhaeto-Romance | a → e / stressed, usually when Ḱ_
|
| a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)
|
| 17.12.1.1.8 Latin to Romanian | — (a)e → ɛ
|
| — {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e
|
| — {e(ː),i,ae,oe} → e / _#
|
| a → ɨ _N ! _{nː,mn}
|
| ”elːa → e”a / _#
|
| ja → e / r_#
|
| a → e / C[+palatal]_#
|
| a o → ə u / ”U…_#
|
| a → a / #(C…)V…C[+palatal]_…”U
|
| a o → ə u / #(C…)V…_…”U
|
| a → ə #C(C…)_…”U
|
| 17.12.1.1.9 Latin to Sardinian | au ai → o e
|
| 17.12.1.1.10 Vulgar Latin to Spanish | Raising of e {ɛ,a} ɔ o → i e o u; near j, in particular environments:
|
| — a → e / _j
|
| ”je.o ”je.a → {”i.o,”jo} ”i.a
|
| 17.13 Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Tocharian | h2e a → a ɨ
|
| {eh2,aH} aː → aː ɔ
|
| ow aw ew → ɛu au əw
|
| oy ay ey → ɛi ai əj
|
| 17.13.1 Proto-Tocharian to Tocharian A | {a,ɛ}i əj → e i
|
| {a,ɛ}u əw → o u
|
| 17.13.2 Proto-Tocharian to Tocharian B | {a,ɛ}u əw → au u
|
| {a,ɛ}i əj → ai i
|
| 18 Je-Tupı́-Carib | 18.3.1 Proto-Tuparí to Makuráp | {a/e} {e/a} {ı̃,ẽ} → e a ẽ
|
| 18.3.2 Proto-Tuparí to Mekens | {{a/e},{e/a}} {ı̃,ẽ} → a ẽ
|
| 18.3.3 Proto-Tuparí to Tuparí | {a/e} → e
|
| 18.3.4 Proto-Tuparí to Wayoró | {a/e} {e/a} {ı̃,ẽ} → a e ı̃
|
| 18.4.1 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Akwára | a → {ɨ,o} / _N#
|
| a → o / ! Cw_
|
| 18.4.2 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Cocama | a → ∅ / _j#
|
| 18.4.3 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guajajara | a → ə / _N#
|
| a → ə / if N in U#
|
| 18.4.5 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Guarayo | aN eN iN ɨN uN → ã ẽ ı̃ ɨ̃ ũ / _#
|
| 18.4.8 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Sirionó | a → {∅,o,e} / _j#
|
| aN eN iN ɨN uN → ã ẽ ı̃ {ɨ̃,ĩ} õ / _#
|
| 18.4.10 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní to Urubu | aN iN uN → {aN,ã} ı̃ {uN,ũ} / _#
|
| 20 Khoisan | 20.2.1 Proto-Kx’a to ÇHoan | a → ∅ / _e (sporadic)
|
| iaɔ → iu
|
| 20.2.2 Proto-Kx’a to Northwestern !Xun | a → ∅ / #_m
|
| a → ∅ / _e (sporadic)
|
| a → ∅ / _(C)o
|
| 20.2.3 Proto-Kx’a to Southeastern !Xun | a → ∅ / #_m
|
| a → ∅ / _(C)o
|
| 21 Lakes Plain | 21.2.1 Proto-Tariku to Proto-Central Tariku | a → e (?)
|
| 21.2.1.2 Proto-Central Tariku to Iau | au → ɔ
|
| 21.2.2 Proto-Tariku to Proto-East Tariku | a → e (?)
|
| 23 Macro-Chibchan | 23.1.1.1.1 Proto-Chibchan to Arhuaco | ia → ə (“unspecified”)
|
| 23.1.1.1.2 Proto-Chibchan to Chibcha | a → ∅ / _i, when unstressed
|
| a → i / _Ci
|
| a → ∅ / _u
|
| a {e,i} → i ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| a → ∅ / _”V
|
| 23.1.1.1.4 Proto-Chibchan to Marocacero | a → ∅ / _i
|
| 23.1.1.1.5 Proto-Chibchan to Motilón | a → i / iC_
|
| {ue,aja} → ə
|
| 23.1.1.1.6 Proto-Chibchan to Tunebo | ai → e / if the *a is not stressed
|
| a → ∅ / _u
|
| {a,i} → ∅ / C”V(C)_
|
| 23.1.2 Proto-Lenmichian to Proto-Lencan | o a → {u,o} {a,e}
|
| 24 Macro-Pama-Nyungan | 24.1.2 Proto-Paman to AwÅtim | iC aC uC → Cj Ca Cw / #_ ! before an identical vowel
|
| 24.1.7 Proto-Paman to Yinwum | a → i / #C[+palatal]V[-long]C_
|
| 28 Muskogean | 28.2 Proto-Muskogean to Proto-Western Muskogean | a → o / xʷ_#
|
| oj aj → iː {aː,iː}
|
| 28.2.1 Proto-Western Muskogean to Chickasaw | aw → o
|
| 28.2.2 Proto-Western Muskogean to Choctaw | a → o / _w
|
| 29 Na-Dene | 29.1.1.1.7 Proto-Athabaskan to Deg Hit’an | e u a {ɑ,ʊ} → a i u ə
|
| 29.1.1.1.8 Proto-Athabaskan to Dena’ina | e a u {ə,ʊ} → a u i ə
|
| 29.1.1.1.10 Proto-Athabaskan to Easter Gwich’in | a u {ɑ,ə} ʊ → {i,e} ju a o
|
| 29.1.1.1.11 Proto-Athabaskan to Han | a ɑ ə ʊ → æ a {ə,ë} o
|
| 29.1.1.1.12 Proto-Athabaskan to Holikachuk | i e a u {ɑ,ʊ} → e a ɔ o ŭ
|
| 29.1.1.1.14 Proto-Athabaskan to Lower Koyukon | e a ɑ ʊ → a o ŏ ŭ
|
| 29.1.1.1.15 Proto-Athabaskan to Upper Koyukon | e a ɑ ʊ → a o ŏ ŭ
|
| 29.1.1.1.16 Proto-Athabaskan to Upper Kuskokwim Kolchan | e a {ɑ,ʊ} → a o ŭ
|
| 29.1.1.1.38 Proto-Athabaskan to Lower Tanana | e a {ɑ,ʊ} → æ ɔ ŭ
|
| 29.1.1.1.39 Proto-Athabaskan to Upper Tanana | {a,ɑ} e i u ʊ → e(a) {i,ea} ju {a,ɨ} o
|
| ə → {a,ɨ} (→ ø in the Northway dialect)
|
| 29.1.1.1.42 Proto-Athabaskan to Southern Tutchone | e a → i e
|
| 30 Niger-Congo | 30.3.1.1.3 Proto-Gbe to Proto-Fon | oi ɔi ɔ̃i {a,ɛ}i {ɛ̃,ẽ}i ei → oe ɔɛ ɔ̃ɛ̃ ɛɛ ɛ̃ɛ̃ ee
|
| 30.3.1.1.10 Proto-Vhe to Awalan | a → e / _{i,j}
|
| 31 Nyulnyulan | 31.1 Proto-Nyulnyulan to Bardi | awu → o
|
| aji → iː / when unstressed
|
| ubu aba → uː aː / when stressed
|
| aɡu → o
|
| 32 Oto-Manguean | 32.1.1 Proto-Chatino to Papabuco Chatino | a → {i,e} “under special conditions”
|
| 32.2 Proto-Oto-Manguean to Tlapanec | {in,en} an → a u
|
| {iHn,eHn,aHn} uHn → ã ũ
|
| 33 Penutian | 33.1.1.1 Proto-Costanoan to Chochenyo | a → e / il_
|
| 33.1.1.3 Proto-Costanoan to Mutsun | a → e / il_
|
| 33.1.1.4 Proto-Costanoan to Rumsen | a → e / il_
|
| 33.3.3 Proto-Yokuts to Palewyami | {u,a} → e / _CVC#, when stressed (short only)
|
| 34 Quechumaran | 34.4 Proto-Quechumaran to Huarás | aw aj {uj,ij} → uː eː iː
|
| 36 Sino-Tibetan | 36.1.1 Late Middle Chinese to Old Mandarin | ia → e / else
|
| {o,a} {a(ta),a(ch)} → e a / _ŋ
|
| {a(ta),a(ch)} → o / else
|
| 36.2 Sin Sukchu to Guānhuà | wɔn ja wa → uɔn ia ua
|
| aʔ → ɔʔ / C[+guttural]_
|
| jaʔ → iaʔ
|
| waʔ → aʔ / C[+labiodental]_
|
| waʔ → uaʔ
|
| aj jaj waj aw jaw → ai iai uai au iau
|
| awʔ → ɔʔ (“Trigault gives a variant in -ɛʔ, which becomes general in the later GH varieties”)
|
| {jawʔ,wawʔ} → ɔʔ / C̣_
|
| jawʔ wawʔ → iɔʔ uɔʔ
|
| am → an
|
| {jam,jan} → iɛn
|
| wan → an / C[+labiodental]_
|
| wan → uan / else
|
| aŋ jaŋ → uaŋ aŋ / C̣_
|
| waŋ → uaŋ
|
| 36.3.1.1 Proto-Naish to Laze | a u i iN → e y ɯ i / T_%
|
| a → i / {ŋ,w}_%
|
| a → wɤ / {K,ŋ}w_%
|
| {a,i} → ɯ / R_%
|
| a → ie / ! K_%
|
| a aS → ɑ {ɑ,u}
|
| 36.3.1.2 Proto-Naish to Mosuo (Na) | a → e / {R,T}_%
|
| a → wɤ / {K,ŋ}w_%
|
| a → i / ! K_%
|
| 36.3.1.3 Proto-Naish to Naxi | a iN {i,u} → e ɚɯ / T_%
|
| a → i / ŋ_%
|
| a → ɯ / {R,w}_%
|
| a → wa / {K,ŋ}w_%
|
| a → e / ! K_%
|
| a aS → ɑ {ɑ,o} / _%
|
| 36.3.2.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to bTshan La | a → e / _m
|
| aj → i
|
| 36.3.2.1.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Chos Kia | a ap at ar am aj → e eb e(d) er om e.i
|
| 36.3.2.1.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to Hanniu | an {at.is} → o ie
|
| 36.3.2.2 Proto-rGyalrongic to Japhug | aŋ → o / _#
|
| a → o / _m#
|
| 36.3.2.2.1 Proto-rGyalrongic to Kham To | at → {at,ɛ,ed}
|
| an → ia
|
| aj → oi
|
| 36.3.2.2.4 Proto-rGyalrongic to Suo Mo | a → o / _r
|
| 36.3.2.2.5 Proto-rGyalrongic to Trung | an → a(i)
|
| 36.3.2.2.6 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tsa Ku Nao | a(t) → ɛ / _#
|
| ap → ɛk
|
| an → ɿɛ
|
| 36.3.2.2.7 Proto-rGyalrongic to Tzu Ta | a → e / _(p)
|
| aw aj → au ai
|
| 36.3.2.2.8 Proto-rGyalrongic to Wassu | an ap → ai ie
|
| aj → ui
|
| 37 Siouan-Iroquoian | 37.1.1 Proto-Iroquoian to Cherokee | a(ː)wẽ(ː) → a(ː)ma(ː)
|
| 37.1.2.1 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Cayuga | ”V(C)(C)CaCV → V(C)”(C)CaCV / _#
|
| 37.1.2.3 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Onondaga | ara → aː / “unaccented syllables only”
|
| ”V(C)(C)CaCV → V(C)”(C)CaCV / _#
|
| a(ː) o(ː) õ(ː) → æ(ː) e(ː) ẽ(ː) / r_
|
| 37.1.2.5 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Seneca | a → æ / _ra(ː)
|
| a → e / _ro(ː)
|
| a(ː) → æ(ː) / r_
|
| a(ː) → ẽ(ː) / adjacent to a nasal vowel
|
| a(ː) æ(ː) → õ(ː) ẽ(ː) / n_
|
| a(ː) → õ(ː) / V[+nas]H_
|
| a(ː) → õ(ː) / V[+nas]({ʔ,s})w_
|
| — a e o → ə ɪ ʊ / C_{C,i[-long]}
|
| 37.1.2.6 Proto-Northern Iroquoian to Tuscarora | a(ː) o(ː) → ɔ(ː) u(ː) / ! “when both short and unstressed”
|
| 37.1.2.6.2 Tuscarora to Eastern Tuscarora | ə̃(ː) a(ː) o(ː) → ɨ̃(ː) ɔ(ː) u(ː) (“in all positions”)
|
| 38 Tai-Kadai | 38.1.1.3 Proto-Tai to Central Tai | ɨ̯a → aː
|
| 38.1.1.3.1 Central Tai to Lungchow | ai → aːi
|
| u̯əi uəi uai i̯əu iau → oːi uːi uːiau oːu
|
| a → aː / _u,i
|
| ɨ̯ai → aːi
|
| {uəi,uai} iau → uːi eːu
|
| 38.1.1.4 Proto-Tai to North Tai | ɨ̯a → ɨa̯~ɨə̯
|
| {u̯ɔ,u̯a} → ua~uə
|
| 38.1.1.4.2 North Tai to Po-Ai | ua~uə → uː
|
| ua~u@̯ → uː
|
| ɨ̯a~ɨə → ɨː
|
| ɨ a → ɨː aː / _i
|
| ɨ̯ai → ɨːi
|
| uəi uai iau → iː oːi eːu
|
| 38.1.1.5 Proto-Tai to Southwest Tai | ɨ̯a → aː
|
| 38.1.1.5.4 Southwest Tai to Siamese | u̯a → aː
|
| a → aː / _i
|
| ɨ̯ai → aːi
|
| ɨ̯əu au → au aːu
|
| 41 Trans-New Guinea | 41.3 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Binandere | a → {a,o}
|
| 41.4 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kaeti | u a → {u,o,y} {a,o}
|
| 41.7 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Kâte | u a → {u,ɔ} {ɔ,a}
|
| 41.9 Proto-Trans New Guinea to Selepet | u o a e → {u,ɔ} {o,ɔ} {a,ɔ} {e,o}
|
| 42 Uralic | 42.1 Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic | a → æ / {a,e,ê,i,y}(X)(C)(C)_, when unstressed
|
| 42.1.1 Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic | uwa → oː (*)
|
| 42.1.1.1.2 Standard Finnish to Modern Standard Finnish | Va → Vː / unstressed
|
| 42.1.2 Proto-Finnic to Livonian | ɑː au → ɔː ɔu (though sometimes ɑː develops, apparently at least partially due to metathesis?)
|
| a → aː / VC_
|
| 43 Uto-Aztecan | 43.5.1.1 Proto-Mono-Kawaiisu to Kawaiisu | a → o / P_
|
| 44 Vasconic | 44.2 Proto-Basque to Basque | a o e → ɛ u i / {i,u}(C…)_ (this [ɛ] is tentatively marked as such; Egurtzegi transcribes it as /e/ but says it’s not as close as /e/)
|
| a → e / _$a (Biscayan, Alavese, some Guipuscoan)
|
| a → ∅ / _V
|
| a → ∅ / V_# (Guipuscoan; happens because of reanalysis of the definite article)
|
| aɪ → eɪ → e (rare)
|
| aʊ → aɪ / !_{ɾ,r,s̺,s̻} (Souletin, Roncalese)
|
| ʊa → o “especially after a velar stop”
|
| oa ea → u(e) i(e) / _#
|
| 45 Yuman-Cochimı́ | 45.1.2 Proto-Pai to Paipai | aw aj → o e
|
| 46 Vowel Shifts | 46.5 Old English-to-Scots Vowel Shifts | ai → ɛi → əi / when stem-final
|
| a → i / _n (in northern varieties)
|
| a → e / _n (otherwise)
|
| a → {ɛ,e} / _rC
|
| ai oi ui ei au ou iu ɛ(o)u → eː oe əi iː {ɑː,ɔː} ʌu ju j(ʌ)u
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| a ɔ u → {a,ɑ} ɔ ʌ
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| 46.8 Greek Vowel Shift | ai ɔi → ɛ yː
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| ɛu au → ɛv av
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| 46.11 Middle Chinese to Cantonese Vowel Shift (“The Inner-Outer Flip”) | a → ɔ / _{ŋ,k}
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| a → {aː,ə} “(the environments for these respective changes are somewhat unclear)”
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| a → aː / _{i,u}
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| a → ə → ∅ / i_u
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| 46.13 Old Norse to Faroese Vowel Shift | {a,æː} → ɛa / a
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| 46.14 Pre-Slavic Vowel Changes | en an → ẽ ã
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| a aː → o a
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| aj → {æ2,i2} “(reduced)”
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| aw → u
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| 46.15 Proto-Japanese to Old Japanese Vowel Shift | {u,ɨ}i {,a,i {ɨi,i{a,ə}} u{ɨ,a,ə} → wi e je wo
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| 46.17 Proto-Maidun to Nisenian Vowel Shift | u i e a → y e a o
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| 46.19 Southern [United States] Shift (English) | aɪ → aː / _#
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| aɪ → aː / _C[+ voiced]
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| aɪ → ɑeː / else (only for some speakers)
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| aɪ → aː / else (only for some speakers)
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